Combined arms
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Combined arms is an approach to warfare which seeks to integrate different arms of a military to achieve mutually complementary effects.
Though the lower-echelon units of a combined arms team may be of homogeneous types, a balanced mixture of such units are combined into an effective higher-echelon unit, whether formally in a table of organization or informally in an ad hoc solution to a battlefield problem. For example an armored division — the modern paragon of combined arms doctrine — consists of a mixture of infantry, tank, artillery, reconnaissance, and perhaps even helicopter units, all coordinated and directed by a unified command structure. The mixing of arms is sometimes pushed down below the level where homogeneity ordinarily prevails, for example by temporarily attaching a tank company to an infantry battalion. Combined arms doctrine contrasts with segregated arms where each unit is composed of only one type of soldier or weapon system as to provide maximum cohesion and concentration of force in a given weapon.
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[edit] Ancient warfare
Combined arms operations dates back to antiquity, where armies would usually field a screen of skirmishers to protect their spearmen during the approach to contact. In more elaborate situations armies of various nationalities fielded different combinations of light, medium, or heavy infantry, cavalry, chariotry, camelry, elephantry, and artillery (mechanical weapons); for example the ancient Persian army. Combined arms in this context was how to best use the cooperating units, variously armed with side-arms, spears, or missile weapons in order to coordinate an attack in time and space that would best disrupt and then destroy the enemy.
The Pre-Marian Roman Legion was a combined arms force and consisted of five classes of troops. Lightly equipped velites acted as skirmishers armed with light javelins. The hastati and principes formed the main attacking strength of the legion with sword and pilum, whilst the triarii formed the defensive backbone of the legion fighting as a phalanx with long spears and large shields. The fifth class were the equites, the cavalry, used for scouting, pursuit and to guard the flanks.
After the Marian reforms the Legion was notionally a unit of heavy infantrymen armed with just sword and pilum, but even so it was normally fielded with attached auxiliary skirmishers and missile troops, and incorporated a small cavalry unit.
The legion was sometimes also incorporated into a higher-echelon combined arms unit, e.g. in one period it was customary for a general to command two legions plus two similarly sized units of auxiliaries, lighter units useful as screens or for combat in rough terrain.
[edit] Middle ages
In the 6th century, the Byzantine emperor Maurice I wrote Strategikon, a manual of war that codified a number of military reforms of the time. These reforms would remain relatively unchanged for 500 years. Today, Strategikon is considered the first sophisticated formulation of combined arms theory.
The English victories of Crecy,Poiters and Agincourt were examples of a simple form of combined arms, with a combination of dismounted knights forming a foundation for formations of English longbowmen. The lightly protected longbowmen could down their French opponents at a distance, whilst the armoured men-at-arms could deal with any Frenchmen who made it to the English lines. This is the crux of combined arms to allow a combination of forces to achieve what would be impossible for its constituent elements to do alone.
The shortcomings of early firearms forced the Spanish Army to adopt the combined arms tercio.The slow firing arquebusers being protected by pikemen and the cumbersome pikemen in turn protected by agile sword and buckler men. The success of the tercio inspired similar formations and tactics being adopted by the armies of other nations.
For example the English New Model Army consisted of intermixed musketeers and pikemen forming a base of manoeuvre for cavalry.
The massed tercio declined with improvements in artillery, for smaller more flexible units. As muskets improved the ratio of pikes to muskets declined until with the invention of the bayonet, their number was reduces to a handful of shortened partisans retained as badges of rank.
[edit] Early modern warfare
In the eighteenth century, the concept of the legion was revived. Legions now consisted of musketeers, light infantry, dragoons and artillery in a brigade sized force. These legions often combined professional military personnel with militia. Perhaps the most notable example is the short-lived Legion of the United States commanded by General "Mad" Anthony Wayne.
[edit] Late 20th Century warfare
The helicopter has had profound influences on modern warfare.
In the Vietnam War, troops were deployed in large part by helicopters. For this reason, US troops in Vietnam saw more than six times as much combat as in any preceding war, because so much less time was spent on logistic delays. The result was that the same size of infantry became at least four times as effective for its size, when supported with fuel, ammunition and helicopters.
In the Soviet war in Afghanistan, helicopters were treated much like flying light tanks. They were almost always the first assault element to make contact in a battle, and often the most effective. Titanium and composite armor made them less vulnerable to fire from light arms.
In the 1991 Gulf War a mix of strikes by fixed-wing aircraft including carpet bombing and precision bombing was used in combination with large numbers of strikes by attack helicopters. During the ground assault phase tanks and other AFV's supported by attack aircraft swept over remaining forces. The front moving line moved forward at upwards of 40–50 km/h at the upper limit of the Army's tracked vehicles.
In 2000, the US Army began developing a new set of doctrines intended to use information superiority to wage warfare. Six pieces of equipment were crucial for this: AWACS, an air-borne look-down radar JSTARS, GPS, the lowly SINCGARS VHF digital radio, and ruggedized PCs. The mix is supplemented by satellite photos and passive reception of enemy radio emission, forward observers with digital target designation, specialized scouting aircraft, anti-artillery radars and gun-laying software for artillery. Everything feeds the network.
Therefore, many U.S. ground vehicles moved across the landscape alone. If they encountered an enemy troop or vehicle concentration, they would hunker down, lay down as much covering fire as they could, designate targets and call for help. Within a few minutes, loitering aircraft would concentrate fire to cover the ground vehicle. Within a half hour or so, heavy attack forces would concentrate to relieve the isolated vehicle. In an hour and a half, the relieved vehicle would be resupplied.
Opposing forces have found the system vulnerable to deception and asymmetric attack in wargame scenarios. One of the most disruptive actions of simulated opponents was to substitute motorcycle couriers for electronic communications. This effectively made the location of enemy command and control centers invisible to radio-surveillance satellites. Another significantly disruptive activity was to move assets and use decoys. Relatively simple decoys fooled aircraft ground-search radars and satellite scanning.
[edit] See also
[edit] References
[edit] Further reading
- House, Jonathan M. Toward Combined Arms Warfare: A Survey of 20th-Century Tactics, Doctrine, and Organization. US Army Command General Staff College, 1984. Available online or through University Press of the Pacific (2002).
