Clash of Civilizations

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The Clash of Civilizations is a controversial theory that people's cultural and religious identities will be the primary source of conflict in the post-Cold War world. Popularized by Samuel P. Huntington, it was originally formulated in an article titled "The Clash of Civilizations?"^[1][2] published in the academic journal Foreign Affairs in 1993, as a reaction to Francis Fukuyama's 1992 book, The End of History and the Last Man. The term itself was first used by Bernard Lewis in an article in the September 1990 issue of The Atlantic Monthly titled The Roots of Muslim Rage.^[3] Huntington later expanded his thesis in a 1996 book The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order. The theory gained widespread attention after the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks.^{[citation needed]}

Contents 1 Overview 2 List of civilizations 3 Huntington's thesis of civilizational clash 4 Modernization, westernization, and "torn countries" 5 Criticism 6 Related concepts 7 Huntington's predictions: analysis and retrospect 8 Recent issues 8.1 China et al. & the West 8.2 Hindu & Islam 8.3 Islam & Orthodox 8.4 Islam & the West 8.5 Orthodox & the West 9 See also 10 Bibliography 11 External links 12 References

[edit] Overview

Huntington began his thinking by surveying the diverse theories about the nature of global politics in the post-Cold War period. Some theorists and writers argued that liberal democracy and Western values had become the only remaining ideological alternative for nations in the post-Cold War world. Specifically, Francis Fukuyama argued that the world had reached the 'end of history' in a Hegelian sense.

Huntington believed that while the age of ideology had ended, the world had only reverted to a normal state of affairs characterized by cultural conflict. In his thesis, he argued that the primary axis of conflict in the future would be along cultural and religious lines. As an extension, he posits that the concept of different civilizations, as the highest rank of cultural identity, will become increasingly useful in analyzing the potential for conflict. In the 1993 Foreign Affairs article, Huntington writes:

It is my hypothesis that the fundamental source of conflict in this new world will not be primarily ideological or primarily economic. The great divisions among humankind and the dominating source of conflict will be cultural. Nation states will remain the most powerful actors in world affairs, but the principal conflicts of global politics will occur between nations and groups of different civilizations. The clash of civilizations will dominate global politics. The fault lines between civilizations will be the battle lines of the future.

Huntington seems to fall in the primordialist school, believing that culturally defined groups are ancient and natural, however his early work would suggest he is a Structural Functionalist. His view that nation states would remain the most powerful actors is in line with realism. Finally, his warning that the Western civilization may decline is inspired by Arnold J. Toynbee and Oswald Spengler.

Due to an enormous response and the solidification of his views, Huntington later expanded the thesis in his 1996 book The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order.

[edit] List of civilizations

The definition, nomenclature, and even the number of civilizations are somewhat ambiguous in Huntington's works. Civilizations may consist of states and social groups (such as ethnic and religious minorities). Predominant religion seems to be the main criterion of his classification, but in some cases geographical proximity and linguistic similarity are important as well. Using various studies of history, Huntington divided the world into the "major" civilizations in his thesis as such:

• Western civilization, centered on Western Europe (particularly the European Union) and North America but also including the Pacific Islands, Australia, East Timor, New Zealand, Suriname ^{[citations needed]}, French Guiana, and northern and central Philippines. Whether Latin America and the former member states of the Soviet Union are included, or are instead their own separate civilizations, will be an important future consideration for those regions, according to Huntington.
• The Orthodox world of Armenia, Belarus, Bulgaria, Cyprus, Georgia, Greece, Macedonia, Moldova, Montenegro, Romania, Russia, Serbia, and Ukraine, sometimes considered part of the western civilization.
• Latin America. It's a hybrid of the western world and the local indigenous people. May be considered a part of Western civilization, though it has slightly distinct social and political structures from Europe and North America. Many people of the Southern Cone, however, consider itself as full part of the western civilization.
• The Muslim world of Central Asia, North Africa, Southwest Asia, Afghanistan, Albania, Azerbaijan, Bangladesh, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Indonesia, Malaysia, Maldives, Pakistan, Somalia, Mindanao, and parts of India.
• Hindu civilization, located chiefly in India, Nepal, and culturally adhered to by the global Non-resident Indians and People of Indian Origin, the diaspora.
• The Sinic civilization of China, Korea, Singapore, Taiwan, and Vietnam. This group also includes the Chinese diaspora, especially in relation to Southeast Asia.
• Japan, considered a hybrid of Chinese civilization and older Altaic patterns.
• The civilization of Sub-Saharan Africa is considered as a possible 8th civilization by Huntington.
• The Buddhist areas of Bhutan, Cambodia, Laos, Mongolia, Myanmar, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Arunachal Pradesh, Kalmykia, parts of Nepal, parts of Siberia, and the Tibetan government-in-exile are identified as separate from other civilizations, but Huntington believes that they do not constitute a major civilization in the sense of international affairs.
• Instead of belonging to one of the "major" civilizations, Ethiopia, Haiti, and Turkey are labeled as "Lone" countries. Israel could be considered a unique state with its own civilization, Huntington writes, but one which is extremely similar to the West. Huntington also believes that former British colonies in the Caribbean constitute a distinct entity.
• In some cases, the Sinic, Hindu, Buddhist and Japonic civilizations are merged into a single civilization called Eastern World.

[edit] Huntington's thesis of civilizational clash

Huntington argues that the trends of global conflict after the end of the Cold War are increasingly appearing at these civilizational divisions. Wars such as those following the break up of Yugoslavia, in Chechnya, and between India and Pakistan were cited as evidence of inter-civilizational conflict. The War on Terror is seen as its largest manifestation.

Huntington also argues that the widespread Western belief in the universality of the West's values and political systems is naive and that continued insistence on democratization and such "universal" norms will only further antagonize other civilizations. Huntington sees the West as reluctant to accept this because it built the international system, wrote its laws, and gave it substance in the form of the United Nations. Huntington identifies a major shift of economic, military, and political power from the West to the other civilizations of the world, most significantly to what he identifies as the two "challenger civilizations", Sinic and Islam.

In Huntington's view, East Asian Sinic civilization is culturally asserting itself and its values relative to the West due to its rapid economic growth. Specifically, he believes that China's goals are to reassert itself as the regional hegemon, and that other countries in the region will 'bandwagon' with China due to the history of hierarchical command structures implicit in the Confucian Sinic civilization, as opposed to the individualism and pluralism valued in the West. In other words, regional powers such as the two Koreas and Vietnam will acquiesce to Chinese demands and become more supportive of China rather than attempting to oppose it. Huntington therefore believes that the rise of China poses one of the most significant problems and the most powerful long-term threat to the West, as Chinese cultural assertion clashes with the American desire for the lack of a regional hegemony in East Asia.

Huntington argues that the Islamic civilization has experienced a massive population explosion which is fueling instability both on the borders of Islam and in its interior, where fundamentalist movements are becoming increasingly popular. Manifestations of what he terms the "Islamic Resurgence" include the 1979 Iranian revolution, the War on Terror, and extremely widespread Islamic opposition to the United States during both Gulf Wars. Perhaps the most controversial statement Huntington made in the Foreign Affairs article was that "Islam has bloody borders". Huntington believes this to be a real consequence of several factors, including the previously mentioned Muslim youth bulge and population growth and Islamic proximity to many civilizations including Sinic, Orthodox, Western, and African.

Huntington sees Islamic civilization as a potential ally to China, both having more revisionist goals and sharing common conflicts with other civilizations, especially the West. Specifically, he identifies common Chinese and Islamic interests in the areas of weapons proliferation, human rights, and democracy that conflict with those of the West, and feels that these are areas in which the two civilizations will cooperate. Russia, Japan, and India are what Huntington terms 'swing civilizations' and may favor either side. Russia, for example, clashes with the many Muslim ethnic groups on its southern border (such as Chechnya) but cooperates with Iran in order to avoid further Muslim-Orthodox violence in Southern Russia and in an attempt to continue the flow of oil. Huntington argues that a "Sino-Islamic connection" is emerging in which China will cooperate more closely with Iran, Pakistan, and other states to augment its international position.

Huntington also argues that civilizational conflicts are "particularly prevalent between Muslims and non-Muslims", identifying the "bloody borders" between Islamic and non-Islamic civilizations. He believes that the current global war on terror between the West and Islam is not a modern consequence of a few crazed radicals, but rather reflects a millennium-plus history of conflict between the two civilizations. This conflict dates back as far as the initial thrust of Islam into Europe, its eventual expulsion in the Spanish reconquest, the attacks of the Ottoman Turks on Eastern Europe and Vienna, and the European imperial division of the Islamic nations in the 1800s and 1900s. He believes that some of the factors contributing to this conflict are that both Christianity (upon which Western civilization is based) and Islam are: Missionary religions, seeking conversion by others Universal, "all-or-nothing" religions, in the sense that it is believed by both sides that only their faith is the correct one. Teleological religions, that is, that their values and beliefs represent the goals of existence and purpose in human existence. More recent factors contributing to a Western-Islamic clash, Huntington wrote, are the Islamic Resurgence and demographic explosion in Islam, coupled with the values of Western universalism - that is, the view that all civilizations should adopt Western values - that infuriate Islamic fundamentalists.

All these historical and modern factors combined, Huntington wrote briefly in his Foreign Affairs article and in much more detail in his 1996 book, would lead to a bloody clash between the Islamic and Western civilizations. Along with Sinic-Western conflict, he believed, the Western-Islamic clash would represent the bloodiest conflicts of the early 21st century. Thus, the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks and subsequent events including the Afghanistan and Iraq wars have been widely viewed as support for the Clash theory.

[edit] Modernization, westernization, and "torn countries"

Critics of Huntington's ideas often extend their criticisms to traditional cultures and internal reformers who wish to modernize without adopting the values and attitudes of Western culture. These critics sometimes claim that to modernize is necessarily to become Westernized to a very large extent. In reply, those who consider the Clash of Civilizations thesis accurate often point to the example of Japan, claiming that it is not a Western state at its core. They argue that it adopted much Western technology (also inventing some technology of its own in recent times), parliamentary democracy, and free enterprise, but has remained culturally very distinct from the West. China is also cited by some as a rising non-Western economy. Many also point out the East Asian Tigers or neighboring states as having adapted western economics, while maintaining traditional or totalitarian social government.

Perhaps the ultimate example of non-Western modernization is Russia, the core state of the Orthodox civilization. The variant of this argument that uses Russia as an example relies on the acceptance of a unique non-Western civilization headed by an Orthodox state such as Russia or perhaps an Eastern European country. Huntington argues that Russia is primarily a non-Western state although he seems to agree that it shares a considerable amount of cultural ancestry with the modern West. Russia was one of the great powers during World War I. It also happened to be a non-Western power. According to Huntington, the West is distinguished from Orthodox Christian countries by the experience of the Renaissance, Reformation, the Enlightenment, overseas colonialism rather than contiguous expansion and colonialism, and a recent re-infusion of Classical culture through Rome rather than through the continuous trajectory of the Byzantine Empire. The differences among the modern Slavic states can still be seen today. This issue is also linked to the "universalizing factor" exhibited in some civilizations.

Huntington refers to countries that are seeking to affiliate with another civilization as "torn countries." Turkey, whose political leadership has systematically tried to Westernize the country since the 1920s, is his chief example. Turkey's history, culture, and traditions are derived from Islamic civilization, but Turkey's Western-oriented elite imposed western institutions and dress, embraced the Latin alphabet, joined NATO, and is seeking to join the European Union. Mexico and Russia are also considered to be torn by Huntington. He also gives the example of Australia as a country torn between the West and Asia.

According to Huntington, a torn country must meet three requirements in order to redefine its civilizational identity. Its political and economic elite must support the move. Second, the public must be willing to accept the redefinition. Third, the elites of the civilization that the torn country is trying to join must accept the country.

As noted in the book, to date no torn country has successfully redefined its civilizational identity, this mostly due to the elites of the 'host' civilization refusing to accept the torn country.

[edit] Criticism

Huntington's piece in Foreign Affairs created more responses than almost any other essay ever published in that journal. There have been many criticisms of his thesis from wildly different paradigms. Some have argued that his identified civilizations are fractured and show little internal unity.^[4] The Muslim world is severely fractured along ethnic lines with Kurds, Arabs, Persians, Turks, Pakistanis, and Indonesians all having very different world views. Moreover, the criteria of the proposed delineation are not clear. One can argue, for instance, that cultural differences between China and Japan are not more important than between China and Vietnam.^[5] However, Vietnam is put together with China under the label of the Sinic civilization while Japan is supposed to form a separate civilization. In fact, Vietnam keeps a massive army mostly to guard against China. Whereas, Western civilization includes both Protestant and Catholic branches; and the Germanic and Romance cultural differences in Western Europe are also disregarded. The distinction between the Western and Orthodox civilizations excludes non-religious factors, such as the post-Communist legacy or the level of economic development. It also ignores differences within Muslim communities.

In his book Terror and Liberalism, Paul Berman proposes another criticism of the civilization clash hypothesis. According to Berman, distinct cultural boundaries do not exist in the present day. He argues there is no "Islamic civilization" nor a "Western civilization", and that the evidence for a civilization clash is not convincing, especially when considering relationships such as that between the United States and Saudi Arabia. In addition, he cites the fact that many Islamic extremists spent a significant amount of time living and/or studying in the western world. According to Berman conflict arises because of philosophical beliefs between groups, regardless of cultural or religious identity.^[6]

In his book, Huntington relies mostly on anecdotal evidence. On the contrary, more rigorous empirical studies show no particular increase in the frequency of intercivilizational conflicts in the post-Cold War period.^[7]

It has been claimed that values are more easily transmitted and altered than Huntington proposes.^[8] Nations such as India and Japan have become successful democracies, and the West itself was rife with despotism and fundamentalism for most of its history. Some also see Huntington's thesis as creating a self-fulfilling prophecy and reasserting differences between civilizations.^[9] Edward Said issued a response to Huntington's thesis in his own essay entitled "The Clash of Ignorance." Said argues that Huntington's categorization of the world's fixed "civilizations" omits the dynamic interdependency and interaction of culture. According to Said, it is an example of an imagined geography, where the presentation of the world in a certain way legitimates certain politics.

Probably the most severe critic of Huntington´s theory, however, has been Huntington himself: unnoticed by many of his readers, Huntington has modified his Clash of Civilizations theory by using youth bulge theory as its foundation:

"I don’t think Islam is any more violent than any other religions, and I suspect if you added it all up, more people have been slaughtered by Christians over the centuries than by Muslims. But the key factor is the demographic factor. Generally speaking, the people who go out and kill other people are males between the ages of 16 and 30".^[10]

So in essence, Huntington has modified his clash of civilizations theory towards a greater consideration of demographics in his explanation of war, social unrest and violence (see war § demographic theories).

[edit] Related concepts

Also, in recent years the theory of Dialogue Among Civilizations, a response to Huntington's Clash of Civilizations, has become the center of some international attention. The concept, which was introduced by former Iranian president Mohammad Khatami, was the basis for United Nation's resolution to name the year 2001 as the Year of Dialogue among Civilizations. [2] [3] In 2005 Secretary General Kofi Annan launched an initiative called Alliance of Civilizations. The theme interfaith dialogue is significantly taken into action by a Turkish scholar Fethullah Gulen and his followers in the late 90s and the movement still grows with a high interest. In order to address the question of "How can citizens of the world live in peace and harmony?", Gulen's followers organizes many events throughout the world today.

[edit] Huntington's predictions: analysis and retrospect

After the September 11, 2001 attacks, Huntington is increasingly regarded as having been prescient as the United States invasion of Afghanistan, 2003 Invasion of Iraq, the 2005 cartoon crisis, the ongoing Iranian nuclear crisis, the 2006 Israel-Lebanon conflict and the Pope Benedict XVI Islam controversy fueled the perception that Huntington's Clash is well underway.

Some maintained that the 1995 and 2004 enlargements of the European Union brought the EU's eastern border up to the boundary between Huntington's Western and Orthodox civilizations; most of Europe's historically Protestant and Roman Catholic countries (with the exception of Croatia and countries like Switzerland and Norway who voluntarily opted out of EU membership) were now EU members, while a number of Europe's historically Orthodox countries (with exceptions such as longtime EU member Greece and newly accepted Cyprus) were outside the EU. As others have noted, however, the NATO and EU membership of Romania and Bulgaria (since 2004 and 2007, correspondingly) present a challenge to some of Huntington's analysis and the line he drew throughout Romania failed to materialize. The recent tidal movements in Ukraine and Republic of Moldova show that there is no obvious limit between CSI and NATO either.

German geographers have pointed out that Huntington's regions of "civilizations" are affected by the concept of the "Kulturerdteile" (culture-continents) of the geographer Albert Kolb - a deprecated theory from 1962. In this theory, the effect of religious aspects was less important than historical and social aspects. Huntington notes in his book that German scholars hold a separate concept of civilization than presented in his analysis.

[edit] Recent issues

The following list includes recent conflicts between states and groups belonging to different civilizations. It does not mean that all those conflicts were caused by the civilizational cleavages.

[edit] China et al. & the West

• Chinese response to the Hainan Island incident: Detention of American pilots by China.
• North Korean nuclear crisis: "Sinic" North Korea asserting nuclear weapons against predominantly "Western" and "Japanese" reactions.
• Chinese transfer of missile and nuclear technologies to "Islamic" Pakistan.

[edit] Hindu & Islam

• Kashmir conflict and Kargil War in Kashmir: clash between Hindu-majority India and the Islamic Republic of Pakistan over Kashmir.
• 1971 Bangladesh atrocities Genocide. Mainly of Bangladeshi Hindus and sympathetic Bangladeshi Muslims by "Islamic" Pakistan
• Bombay Riots ,Wandhama massacre, Kaluchak massacre, Marad massacre, Godhra Train Burning, 2002 Gujarat violence: Various clashes between Hindus and Muslims in India.
• 1993 Mumbai Bombings perpetrated by Dawood Ibrahim in Hindu majority Mumbai.
• Conflict between "Islamic" Bangladesh and non-Islamic minorities.
• Akshardham Temple attack - Attack on Hindu temple by Islamic Fundamentalists
• 29 October 2005 Delhi bombings
• 2005 Ram Janmabhoomi attack in Ayodhya - Attack on Hindu Ram Janmabhoomi by Islamic Fundamentalists
• 2005 Jaunpur train bombing
• 29 October 2005 Delhi bombings
• 11 July 2006 Mumbai train bombings
• 2006 Malegaon blasts
• 2006 Varanasi bombings
• 2007 Samjhauta Express bombings

[edit] Islam & Orthodox

• 1988–1994 Nagorno-Karabakh War: conflict between "Islamic" Azerbaijan and "Orthodox" Armenia.
• 1994-1996 First Chechen War.
• 1996-1999 Kosovo War: conflict between "Islamic" Kosovo, supported by "Western" NATO, and "Orthodox" Serbia.
• 1999-present Second Chechen War: conflict between "Orthodox" Russia and "Islamic" Chechenia.
• Beslan Massacre: Attack by "Islamic" Chechen terrorists on a school in "Orthodox" Russia.

[edit] Islam & the West

• 2000 millennium attack plots: attempt of "Islamic" Al-Qaeda to attack the "Western" United States and "Islamic" Jordan.
• September 11, 2001 attacks: conflict between "Islamic" Al-Qaeda and the "Western" United States, a trigger of War on Terror.
• 2002 Bali bombing: "Islamic" terrorist group attacked "Western" tourists in "Islamic" Indonesia.
• United States war in Afghanistan: conflict between "Islamic" Afghanistan and a partly "Western" multinational coalition.
• Iraq War: Conflict between "Islamic" Iraq and a predominantly "Western" coalition
• 11 March 2004 Madrid train bombings: Conflict between an "Islamic" terrorist group and "Western" Spain.
• July 2005 London bombings: conflict between an "Islamic" terrorist group and the "Western" United Kingdom.
• 2005 civil unrest in France: riots of predominantly "Islamic" groups in "Western" France.
• 2005 Cronulla riots: riots between "Western" Australians and "Islamic" Australians.
• Jyllands-Posten Muhammad cartoons controversy: riots of "Islamic" groups against cartoons published in "Western" Denmark.
• 2006 Toronto terrorism case: counter-terrorism raids in Canada.
• 2006 Lebanon War: Conflict between "lone/Western" Israel and "Islamic" Hezbollah.
• 2006 Transatlantic Aircraft Plot: Plot of "Islamic" terrorists against "Western" states.
• Iranian Nuclear Crisis: International crisis over the nuclear program developed by "Islamic" Iran.
• Pope Benedict XVI Islam controversy: Diplomatic conflict between "Islamic" countries and "Western" Vatican.

[edit] Orthodox & the West

• 1991-1995 Croatian War of Independence: a war between “Orthodox” Serbia and “Western” Croatia.
• 1996-1999 Kosovo War: conflict between "Islamic" Kosovo, supported by "Western" NATO, and "Orthodox" Serbia.
• Ukrainian presidential election of 2004: election in what Huntington calls the 'cleft' country of Ukraine may reflect a civilizational split between the "Orthodox" East and the "Western" West of Ukraine.

[edit] See also

• Alliance of Civilizations
• Arnold J. Toynbee’s A Study of History
• Dialogue Among Civilizations
• Francis Fukuyama, an American political economist and author of The End of History and the Last Man.
• Multiculturalism
• Niall Ferguson, Professor of History at Harvard University.
• Oswald Spengler's The Decline of the West
• Religious Pluralism

[edit] Bibliography

• Barber, Benjamin R., Jihad vs. McWorld, Hardcover: Crown, 1995, ISBN 0812923502; Paperback: Ballantine Books, 1996, ISBN 0345383044
• Blankley, Tony, The West's Last Chance: Will We Win the Clash of Civilizations?, Washington, D.C., Regnery Publishing, Inc., 2005 ISBN 0-89526-015-8
• Harris, Lee, Civilization and Its Enemies: The Next Stage of History, New York, The Free Press, 2004 ISBN 0-7432-5749-9
• Harrison, Lawrence E. and Samuel P. Huntington (eds.), Culture Matters: How Values Shape Human Progress, New York, Basic Books, 2001 ISBN 0-465-03176-5
• Huntington, Samuel P., The Clash of Civilizations?, in "Foreign Affairs", vol. 72, no. 3, Summer 1993, pp. 22-49
• Huntington, Samuel P., The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order, New York, Simon & Schuster, 1996 ISBN 0-684-84441-9
• Huntington, Samuel P. (ed.), The Clash of Civilizations?: The Debate, New York, Foreign Affairs, 1996 ISBN 0-87609-164-8
• Köchler, Hans (ed.), Civilizations: Conflict or Dialogue?, Vienna, International Progress Organization, 1999 ISBN 3-900704-18-X (Google Print)
• Köchler, Hans, The "Clash of Civilizations": Perception and Reality in the Context of Globalization and International Power Politics, Tbilisi (Georgia), 2004
• Pera, Marcello and Joseph Ratzinger (Pope Benedict XVI), Senza radici: Europa, Relativismo, Cristianesimo, Islam [transl.: Without Roots: The West, Relativism, Christianity, Islam, Philadelphia, PA, Perseus Books Group, 2006 ISBN 0-465-00634-5], Milano, Mondadori, 2004 ISBN 88-04-54474-0
• Peters, Ralph, Fighting for the Future: Will America Triumph?, Mechanicsburg, PA, Stackpole Books, 1999 ISBN 0-8117-0651-6
• Toft, Monica Duffy, The Geography of Ethnic Violence: Identity, Interests, and the Indivisibility of Territory, Princeton, NJ, Princeton University Press, 2003 ISBN 0-691-11354-8
• Tusicisny, Andrej, Civilizational Conflicts: More Frequent, Longer, and Bloodier?, in "Journal of Peace Research", vol. 41, no. 4, 2004, pp. 485–498 (available online)
• Van Creveld, Martin, The Transformation of War, New York & London, The Free Press, 1991 ISBN 0-02-933155-2

[edit] External links

• "The Clash of Civilizations?" -- text of the original essay from the Foreign Affairs Web site. The site offers a 500-word preview only. Visitors may purchase a .pdf reprint of the entire 9,176-word piece. Prof. Martin Irvine at Georgetown University hosts a copy of the full text with no restrictions.
• "If Not Civilizations, What? Samuel Huntington Responds to His Critics", Foreign Affairs, November/December 1993 (full text)
• The Slow suicide of the West by Jorge Majfud
• Sam Huntington discusses the "clash" with Jenny Attiyeh on Thoughtcast
• "The 'Clash of Civilizations': Revisited after September 11", a critical article on Huntington's thesis
• "Five Years After 9/11, The Clash of Civilizations Revisited", an interview of Huntington by Mark O'Keefe, Associate Director, Editorial, Pew Forum on Religion & Public Life August 18, 2006.
• "The global clash of emotions", International Herald Tribune," Dominique Moïsi, December 14, 2006.
• "The Clash of Civilizations Revisited", New Perspectives Quarterly," Winter 2007. An interview of Huntington by Amina R. Chaudary of Islamica Magazine.
• "The Clash of Civilizations?", Interview with Samuel Huntington, The Guardian, October 21, 2001.
• "The True Clash of Civilizations", by Ronald Inglehart and Pippa Norris, Foreign Policy 2003. This article discusses recent surveys of opinions in predominantly Islamic nations and claims that the real rift between civilizations does not concern the question of democracy (which is generally approved) but rather the attitudes towards sexuality and gender equality. Those societies that do not tolerate self-expression, it argues, are unlikely to become stable democracies.
• Dr wafa Sultan video interview to al Gazira- A rare Arab public debate video about Muslim and western civilization clashes. (Transcript)
• Islam and Europe: clash and mashKhaled Diab and Katleen Maes examine the myths driving anti-Islamic fervour in the EU and argue that, although the two civilisations have occasionally clashed, they have more often simply mashed. Published in the European Voice, 31 March-6 April 2005
• Clash of Ignorance Edward Said's critical review of the "Clash of Civilizations"
• Online Interview: One Global Family or the Clash of Civilizations?
• The Myth of Culture Clash, a lecture by Edward Said

[edit] References