Christian views about women

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Christian views (attitudes and beliefs) about women vary considerably today and have varied even more throughout the last two millennia, evolving along with or counter to the societies in which Christians have lived.

There are differing interpretations of the Bible, differing traditions of various churches and differing cultures in which these churches exist. Some groups express an official view of gender expectations within their congregations and within the world, while others do not.

The Bible and Christianity historically have been interpreted as prescribing separate gender roles, with women often being excluded from church leadership. For the first 19 or 20 centuries after the Resurrection and Ascension of Christ (according to Christian belief), institutionalized Christianity was very unfavorable to women. A gender-based hierarchy, claimed by Complementarians to be biblical, has been constructed to place woman under the man's authority— in the church, in marriage, and elsewhere.

Only since the 1970s have more moderate views emerged. Today they are known as the Christian Egalitarian and Complementarian views of women and men:

• Christian Egalitarians' interpretation of scripture bring them to the conclusion that the manner and teaching of Jesus, affirmed by the Apostle Paul, abolished gender-specific roles in either the church or marriage. One verse has been seen as a fanfare of freedom by what historically have been three oppressed groups: racial minorities, slaves, and women. This verse has been called by authors the "Magna Carta of spiritual emancipation."^[1]

There is neither Jew nor Greek, slave nor free, male nor female, for you are all one in Christ Jesus. (Galatians 3:28)

Christian Egalitarians take that verse at face value, understanding it to acknowledge the elaborate system of inequalities existing since shortly after the Creation. But the Founder of Christianity, Jesus Christ, abolished those systems for all eternity. Within his church, "in Christ," is the one sanctuary, the one oasis, the one protected place where there are no secondary distinctions of race, national origin, slavery, or gender discrimination. All are one in Christ."

• Complementarian Christian views, also known as Traditional or Hierarchical views, take the Bible to prescribe a gender-based hierarchy and separate gender roles in the church and in marriage. These prescribed gender roles only recently have come to be described by some as "different but equal." Male priority still exists, but the two genders are to have "complementary" roles in the church and home. Complementarians argue that Galatians 3:28 speaks only of equal availability of all to salvation and does not pertain to marriage or ordination of women.

Contents 1 History 2 Women's roles in the early Christian Church 3 Jesus' interactions with women 3.1 Peter's Mother-in-Law 3.2 Jesus and his mother[10] 3.3 The woman bent double[10] 3.4 A widow of Nain[10] 3.5 A widow's offering[10] 3.6 A woman who anointed Jesus' feet[10] 3.7 A woman who touched of Jesus' garment[10] 3.8 A woman rebuked[10] 3.9 A Syrophoenician woman[10] 3.10 A woman caught in adultery[10] 3.11 The woman at the well in Samaria[10] 3.12 Mary and Martha[10] 3.12.1 Tension over roles[10] 3.12.2 The Grieving Sisters[10] 3.12.3 The anointing at Bethany[10] 3.13 Women who ministered with Jesus[10] 3.14 Twelve and no women[10] 3.15 Jesus on Family Relationships 4 Biblical interpretations supporting equal roles for men and women 5 Biblical interpretations supporting unequal roles for women and men 6 Current church views of women's roles 7 References and notes 8 Catholic Church references 9 Literature on the History of Women in the Early Christian Church 10 See also 11 External links

[edit] History

Christianity emerged from Judaism, which is considered by some a patriarchal religion since God is almost always referred to with masculine pronouns. Since the first English translation of the Bible, the Holy Spirit was referred to as "It" to indicate the lack of gender. However, that practice has changed with time since it was considered an offensively impersonal characterization. Yet, all illustrations of God are metaphors or anthropomorphisms. In Psalm 5:11-12, God is pictured as a mother hen with wide, safe wings outstretched for her young to run to her for protection and shelter in the time of storm or trouble. In Matthew 23:37 and Luke 13:34, Jesus likens himself to a mother hen or a nesting, brooding, mother bird. This is considered untrue by many Christians therefore doubting this articles reliability.

According to Genesis, Eve, the first woman, was created out of the rib of Adam, the first man. Interpreters often consider this to indicate a natural inferiority of women within the creation story of the religion, although it bears noting in rejoinder that the world is replete with examples where an extracted component of a commodity is of greater value than the original commodity (iron, for example, is more valuable than the iron ore from which it is extracted; gasoline is of much higher value than the crude oil from which it is extracted). Thus, even on its own terms, the "Adam's rib" theory is open to question.

Eve's weakness has sometimes been blamed for causing Adam's fall, and thus for humanity's fall into original sin. This claim was frequently made during the Middle Ages. In addition, those who argue that Judaism is founded upon patriarchal principles point out that religious and governmental authority within Jewish cultures has usually been restricted to the male gender.

However, even in the Jewish scriptures there are countercurrents to this patriarchal emphasis. While the creation narrative in Genesis 2 says Eve was made from and for Adam, the creation narrative in Genesis strongly implies that both man and woman were created at the same time. It also makes it clear that both male and female were created in the image of God: "So God created human beings in his own image, in the image of God he created them; male and female he created them" (Genesis 1:27).

The Old Testament presents strong female role models, like the Judge Deborah, Judith and Esther, who were depicted as saving the Hebrew people from disaster. In the book of Proverbs, the divine attribute of Holy Wisdom is presented as female.

[edit] Women's roles in the early Christian Church

There is evidence to suggest that women in the early Christian church had significant status and roles, despite patriarchal theology. This was particularly true in the first three centuries of the Common Era

From the beginning of the early Christian church, starting with Jesus, women were important members of the movement. The gospels of the New Testament often mention Jesus speaking to women publicly and openly against the social norms of the time. He reached out to the marginalized in his society and thus, his appeal was great. He had female followers who were his sponsors and Mary Magdalene is recorded to be the first person to have the privilege of seeing Jesus after resurrection. As time went on and the disciples continued to spread Jesus' message by word of mouth, groups of Christians organized within the homes of believers, the private sphere of the woman. Those who could offer their home for meetings were considered important within the movement and assumed leadership roles.^[2]

By the time Paul began his missionary movement, women were important agents within the different cities. The Pauline letters mention women such as Chloe, Prisca, Euodia and Syntyche as well as Phoebe.

Chloe appears to be a head of a household of an extended family.^[3] Prisca is mentioned several times in the Bible, as either a missionary partner with the Apostle Paul or the wife of Aquila. Out of five times Priscila and Aquila are mentioned as a couple, her name appears before Aquila's three times. This has prompted speculations by scholars that she may have been more important than Aquila, especially since it is believed they often organized gatherings within "her" home in Corinth.

There are also Euodia and Syntyche who were involved with the missionary work and traveled unaccompanied without male restrictions.^[4]

Phoebe, another woman mentioned in Pauline letters, also traveled without a male companion and said to have been important in the creation of the missionary movement and central in Paul's plans for a mission in Spain.^[5] He attaches to her three titles: sister, diakonos meaning a deacon who preached and taught and prostasis meaning leader and president. There is no difference when the title of the deacon is used for Phoebe and Timothy, suggesting an equal importance within the movement for males and females.^[6] The office of the deacon eventually became mainly associated with women and their close work with the poor.

Outside of written religious sources there is also objective evidence to support women's prominent status and roles within the early Christian church. A Second century letter of a Roman governor, Pliny the Younger, to Roman emperor Trajan, demonstrates that female servants were leaders in a church in Bythnia. Pliny wrote the letter, dated 112 C.E., asking for advice on how he should handle a situation where Christians were said to have been stirring trouble. He said he captured and tortured two female maidservants called deaconesses. These women must have been considered important church leaders since the term was similarly applied to Phoebe from the Pauline letters.^[7]

Art has also been an important objective source showing women in leadership roles. The first or early second century fresco called Fractio Panis depicts a Eucharist ceremony. All the participants, including the main person who is performing the ceremony, are all women.^[8] A mosaic found in a Roman basilica portrays Mary, two saints and a veiled woman. An inscription states that the veiled woman is Theodora Epicopa which means Bishop Theodora, Epicopa being the Latin feminine term for bishop. On a Greek island called Thera, a commemorative inscription has been discovered on a burial site. It named Epiktas, a female name, as a priest.^[9]

[edit] Jesus' interactions with women

This section contains multiple references to the opinions and biblical interpretations of Baptist theologian Dr. Frank Stagg and classicalist Evelyn Stagg, co-authors of the book, Woman in the World of Jesus.^[10] The Staggs write that the synoptic Gospels^[11] contain a relatively high number of references to women, compared to literary works of the same era. They claim that in no instance is a woman disgraced, belittled, reproached, or stereotyped by Jesus. Their conclusion is that Jesus treats each woman he encountered with dignity and respect. This section presents many of the New Testament records of Jesus' interactions with women.

[edit] Peter's Mother-in-Law

Matthew 8:14-15, Mark 1:30-31, Luke 4:38-39. When Jesus came into Peter's house, he saw Peter's mother-in-law lying in bed with a fever. He healed the woman of fever by touching her hand. She rose and began to wait on him.

[edit] Jesus and his mother^[10]

Jesus in the Temple in Jerusalem (Luke 2:41–52). The canonical Gospels offer only one story about Jesus as a boy—Luke's story about the boy Jesus in the Jerusalem Temple. According to Luke, parents Joseph and Mary took the 12-year-old Jesus to Jerusalem on their annual pilgrimage to the Passover. After they had feasted, Mary and Joseph started their journey homeward, leaving Jesus behind as they thought that he was somewhere in the caravan with kinsmen or acquaintances (Luke2:44 TNIV).

When Mary found him, she told Jesus, "Son, why hast thou thus dealt with us? behold, thy father and I have sought thee sorrowing" (Luke2:48 KJV).

The wedding at Cana of Galilee (John 2:1–11). Mary told Jesus the wine was in short supply. His reply seems curt: "Woman, what have I to do with thee? mine hour is not yet come" (John 2:4).

According to the Staggs: the term "woman" is respectful but formal. Neither here nor elsewhere does Jesus renounce the mother-son relationship as such, but here as in Luke 2:49 he declares his vocational (ministerial) independence of his mother. Mary's love is not to interfere with Yahweh's business. He has an "hour" to meet, and Mary, though his mother, can neither hasten nor hinder its coming.

[edit] The woman bent double^[10]

Luke 13:10–17 According to Luke, Jesus saw a crippled woman while he taught in a synagogue on the Sabbath. He called to the woman, laid his hands on her body, and healed her Luke 13:13. He was criticized by the unnamed leader of the synagogue for healing the woman on the Sabbath. In response, Jesus called the woman a "daughter of Abraham, whom Satan hath bound" and rebuked the leader for hypocrisy. The Staggs emphasize that this is the only reference in New Testament to "a daughter of Abraham." They conclude that Jesus spoke of this woman as though she belonged to the family of Abraham just as much as did the sons of Abraham.

[edit] A widow of Nain^[10]

The Gospels describe two miracles of Jesus raising persons from the dead. In both incidents the dead are restored to women. Jesus restored an only son to an unnamed widow Luke 7:11–17 and to Mary and Martha their brother Lazarus (John 11:1–44)).

[edit] A widow's offering^[10]

The moving story of a poor widow's casting of "two copper coins" into the Temple treasury appears in Mark 12:41–44 and in Luke 21:1–4. What a poor widow gave was her self—"all her living." It was food out of her mouth. Women had only limited access to the Temple in Jerusalem. There Jesus found the most praiseworthy piety and sacrificial giving—not in the rich contributors—but in a poor woman.

[edit] A woman who anointed Jesus' feet^[10]

Jesus was an invited dinner guest in the home of a Pharisee. All at the table were men. During the meal a woman known as "a sinner" entered the room and anointed Jesus' feet with her tears and with some ointment. Her tears fell upon his feet and she wiped them with her hair. Women of the time had few options, and it is most likely (but not certain) that her sin was the familiar one of prostitution. The grammar of Luke 7:47 permits the understanding that the woman was forgiven because she loved much. To Jesus the woman's obviously great love is evidence that she knew herself to have been forgiven much. This particular sinner had the courage to publicly express her love for the one who saw her—not as a sex object to be exploited—but as a person to be accepted as having worth.

[edit] A woman who touched of Jesus' garment^[10]

Jesus practiced the ministry of touch, sometimes touching the "untouchables" and letting them touch him. Among the things considered defiling, disqualifying one for the rituals of religion, was an issue of blood, especially menstruation or hemorrhage. One such had been plagued with a flow of blood for 12 years, no one having been able to heal her. She found the courage in a crowd to force her way up to Jesus, approaching him from behind so as to remain inconspicuous, and simply touching his garment (Mark 5:27). When she touched Jesus' garment, the flows of blood stopped. Jesus turned and asked who touched him. The disciples tried to brush aside the question, protesting that in such a crowd no individual could be singled out. Jesus pressed his inquiry and the noble woman identified herself and declared to the crowd the blessing that had come to her. Jesus treated her not only as having worth but as doing a responsible thing. He did not rebuke her for what the cultic code of holiness would have considered as having defiled him. Rather, he relieved her of any sense of guilt for her seemingly rash act and said, "Daughter, your faith has saved you. Go in peace!" (Mark 5:34).

[edit] A woman rebuked^[10]

In the scenes preserved in the Gospels, Jesus almost always takes a positive stance toward women. He never denigrates womanhood as such. Luke 11:27–28 reports that as Jesus was speaking on one occasion, a woman from the crowd lifted her voice and cried out, "Blessed be the womb that bore you and the breasts that nursed you." Jesus gave her what appears to have been a curt answer: "On the contrary, blessed are those hearing the word of God and observing it." He was making the point that compliance with God's word is what makes one blessed, not motherhood as such, not even the mothering of Jesus. Jesus does not denigrate motherhood in his teaching, but neither does Jesus succumb to the unreflecting sentimentality that exalts motherhood as such. And this episode as elsewhere, Jesus affirmed personhood, giving it its worth apart from gender or other distinctions. This is the heart of Jesus' perception of persons. Ethnic, racial, cultic, gender, and other distinguishing factors were secondary to him. Personhood was primary. Only by self-exclusion is one not included.

[edit] A Syrophoenician woman^[10]

The story in Mark 7:24–30 and its parallel in Matthew 15:21–28 is unlike any other in the canonical Gospels. Jesus seems harsh toward the woman as he first denies her request for help for her daughter. He also appears to be condescending and denigrating of her as he says, "First let the children be fed, for it is not fitting to take the brand of the children and throw it to the dogs" (Mark 7:27). In the context, "the children" seem to be Jews and "the dogs" Gentiles. Elsewhere in the Gospels, Jesus uniformly prevails over his opponents. Here the woman has the better of it in her reply, "Sir, even the dogs under the table eat from the children's crumbs" (Mark 7:28). Jesus responded positively to the woman "because of this word" (v. 29). A foreign woman comes out victorious and vindicated in this encounter with Jesus.

She is identified as "a Greek, a Syrophoenician by race" (vs 25f.). The point is not that she is a woman but that she is Gentile, not Jewish. "Dogs" was epithet of the day for Gentiles, and Jesus appears to be on the side of Jewish contempt for Gentiles. In both Mark and Matthew, non-Jews are likened to "dogs," and a woman deeply concerned for her daughter's condition is brushed off until she herself prevails in her discourse with Jesus. Why Jesus appeared harsh to a disadvantaged person and also lost the brief debate with her is still debated among authorities. Three interpretations seem possible:

1. Jesus could have been instructing his disciples, first assuming a familiar Jewish prejudice toward non-Jews and then abandoning it as its unfairness was exposed. The story may have served as an object lesson about prejudice to his disciples as a barrier is broken down between Jews and Gentiles.
2. Jesus may have been testing the woman's faith. Jesus' parting word to her is one of affirmation and acclaim. She passed his test.
3. A third possibility suggests a deep struggle within Jesus as he dealt with the claims of both Jew and Gentile. Jesus demonstrated a universal perspective of that day. He had openness to Jews who were outside of accepted circles (publicans, sinners, prostitutes). He also went out of his way to affirm Samaritans (for example, the woman at the well) who as an ethnic group had mutual animosity with the Jews. It is clear that he had to give himself unreservedly to Israel and yet also to the rest of the world. Jesus may have been having a deep honest struggle within himself over the claims of two worlds upon him.</ref>

As to the manner of Jesus with women, he did not substitute uncritical deference for prejudice against women. He related to women as persons with words and dignity. In this story as elsewhere, Jesus is seen as capable of manifesting a critical stance toward woman and at the same time being respectful of her self-affirmation as she boldly countered his own remarks.

[edit] A woman caught in adultery^[10]

The story appearing in most Bibles as John 7:53–8:11 does not seem to have been original to the Gospel of John or any other New Testament writing. It is absent from the two oldest copies of the Gospel of John known to us.^[12] Whether or not the story is historical cannot be determined, but it does ring true to what otherwise is known about Jesus. It is hardly a story that the Church would have invented. It could be historical, a story that first lived outside the canonical Gospels.

Jesus was teaching in the Temple in Jerusalem. Some scribes and Pharisees interrupted his teaching as they brought in a woman who had been taken in the very act of adultery. They stood her before him, declared the charge, reminded him of Moses' command that such women be stoned, and then asked, "What do you say?" After a time of silence, Jesus stooped down and wrote with his finger on the ground. The text includes no hint of what he wrote. The woman's accusers were after Jesus, not just her. She to them was a worthless object to be used to trap Jesus. Finally, Jesus stood up and said to the accusers, "Let the one among you who is without sin cast the first stone." He stooped down once more and again wrote on the ground. In his answer Jesus did not condone adultery. He compelled her accusers to judge themselves and find themselves guilty—of this sin and/or others. No one could pass the test, and they slipped out one by one, beginning with the eldest.

When Jesus and the woman were finally alone, he asked her a simple question, "Woman, where are they? Did no one condemn you?" She simply replied, "No one, Lord." His final word to the woman was one of affirmation and commission: "Neither do I condemn you. Go, and from now on sin no more." While acknowledging that she had sinned, he turned her in a new direction with real encouragement. Jesus rejected the double standard for women and men and turned the judgment upon the male accusers. His manner with the sinful woman was such that she found herself challenged to a new self understanding and a new life.

[edit] The woman at the well in Samaria^[10]

The long account about Jesus and a woman of Samaria, found in John 4:1–4, is highly significant for understanding Jesus in several relationships: Samaritans, women, and sinners. By talking openly with this woman Jesus crossed a number of barriers which normally would have separated a Jewish teacher from such a person as this woman of Samaria. Jesus did three things that were highly unconventional and astonishing for his cultural-religious situation:

1. He as a man talked theology openly with a woman,
2. He as a Jew asked to drink from the ritually unclean bucket of a Samaritan and
3. He did not avoid her even though he knew her marital record of having had five former husbands and now living with a man who was not her husband.

The disciples showed their astonishment upon their return to the well: "They were marveling that he was talking with a woman" (John 4:27). A man in the Jewish world did not normally talk with a woman in public, not even with his own wife. For a rabbi to discuss theology with a woman was even more unconventional. Jesus did not defer to a woman simply because she was a woman. He did not hesitate to ask of the woman that she let him drink from her vessel, but he also did not hesitate to offer her a drink of another kind from a Jewish "bucket" as he said to her, "Salvation is of the Jews" (John 4:22). Salvation was coming to the Samaritan woman from the Jews. Although she was a Samaritan, she needed to be able to drink from a Jewish "vessel" (of salvation) and Jesus no more sanctioned Samaritan prejudice against Jew than Jewish prejudice against Samaritan.

The key to Jesus' stance is found in his perceiving persons as persons. In the stranger at the well he saw someone who first and foremost was a person—not primarily a Samaritan, a woman, or a sinner. This evangelized woman became an evangelist. She introduced her community to "a man" whom they came to acclaim as "the Savior of the world" (John 4:42). Jesus liberated this woman and awakened her to a new life in which not only did she receive but also gave. The Bible says she brought "many Samaritans" to faith in Christ (v. 39). If the men in John 1 were the first "soul winners," this woman was the first "evangelist" in John's gospel.

[edit] Mary and Martha^[10]

Luke and John show that Jesus had a close relationship with the sisters Mary and Martha. They are featured in three major stories:

1. A tension between the two sisters over roles (Luke 10:38–42));
2. Grief at the death of their brother Lazarus, followed by his being raised (John 11:1–44); and
3. The anointing of Jesus by Mary (explicitly in John 12:1–8); presumably in Mark 14:3–9; Matthew 26:6–13).

[edit] Tension over roles^[10]

(Luke 10:38–42)) Only Luke relates the story of tension between Martha and Mary on the occasion of the visit of Jesus to their home. While Martha prepared the meal, Mary sat at the feet of Jesus and "she was hearing his word" (Luke 10:39). Martha became distracted and frustrated over having to serve the meal without any help from her sister. Finally she openly shared her feelings, stood over Jesus who was either seated or reclining, and complained: "She came to him and asked, "Lord, don't you care that my sister has left me to do the work by myself? Tell her to help me!" Jesus gently rebuked Martha for being so distracted and troubled over many things, when only one thing was necessary. He then affirmed Mary and her choice of "the good part" which would not be taken from her.

Mary's choice was not a conventional one for Jewish women. She sat at the feet of Jesus and was listening to his teaching and religious instruction. Jewish women were not permitted to touch the Scriptures; they were not taught the Torah itself, although they were instructed in accordance with it for the proper regulation of their lives. A rabbi did not instruct a woman in the Torah. Not only did Mary choose the "good part," but Jesus related to her in a teacher-discipleship relationship. He admitted her into "the study" and commended her for her choice. In the tradition of that day, women were excluded from the altar-oriented priestly ministry, and the exclusion encroached upon the Word-oriented ministry for women. Jesus reopened the Word-ministry for woman. Mary was at least one of his students in theology.

Jesus vindicated Mary's rights to be her own person—to be Mary and not Martha. He showed his approval of a woman's right to opt for the study and not be compelled to be in the kitchen. Jesus established his own priorities in declaring, "Man shall not live by bread alone, but by every word proceeding out through the mouth of God (Matthew 4:4)). Martha needed to be reminded of the priority of Word over bread. Luke's account of Jesus at the home of Mary and Martha puts Jesus solidly on the side of the recognition of the full personhood of woman, with the right to options for her own life. By socializing with both sisters and in defending Mary's right to a role then commonly denied to Jewish women, Jesus was following his far-reaching principle of human liberation.

[edit] The Grieving Sisters^[10]

John 11:1–44 is about the raising of Lazarus from four days in the tomb. The central figure, however, is Jesus, identified as "the resurrection and the life." When the brother of Mary and Martha became ill, they sent for Jesus. For some undisclosed reason, Jesus did not arrive until four days after Lazarus died. The grieving sisters met Jesus, Martha first and then Mary. Jesus raised Lazarus from the dead and then proclaimed himself as "the resurrection and the life." Martha gently reproached Jesus, "Lord, had you been here, my brother would not have died." She hastened to express full confidence that God would grant whatever Jesus asked him to grant. Martha reflected a spiritual understanding beyond that required for preparing and serving a meal (John 11:21–27). Apparently Martha and not just Mary had benefited from the study.

Mary stayed in the house until Jesus called for her. When Martha went to get her, Mary came quickly fell at Jesus' feet (Mary is at the feet of Jesus in every appearance recorded in John's gospel). She repeated the words Martha already had used: "Lord, had you been here my brother would not have died." Jesus was deeply moved upon seeing Mary and her friends weeping. They invited Jesus to come and see the tomb where Lazarus had been laid. Jesus burst into tears. The Jews standing by understood this as reflecting Jesus is love for Lazarus, "see how he loved him" (v. 36). The foursome of Jesus, Mary, Lazarus, and Martha had a close relationship as persons, with neither denial of gender differences nor preoccupation with it. Here were persons of both genders whose mutual respect, friendship and love carried them through experiences of tension, grief, enjoy. Apparently Jesus was secure enough to develop such a relationship with two sisters and their brother without fear for his reputation. When necessary, he could oppose them without fear of chauvinism. Jesus had much to do with the liberation and growth of Martha and Mary.

[edit] The anointing at Bethany^[10]

(Matthew 26:6–13; Mark 14:1–3; John 12:1–3) Only John identifies Mary with the anointing in Bethany; the woman remains unnamed in Mark and Matthew. He assured the story of a woman's sacrificial love a place in the gospel wherever preached (Matthew 26:13. Mary probably anticipated Jesus' death, but that is not certain. At least her beautiful deed gave Jesus needed support as he approached his awaited hour. Each of the two sisters Mary and Martha had their own way of ministering to Jesus: Martha, perhaps being more practical, served him a meal; Mary lavishly anointed him.

[edit] Women who ministered with Jesus^[10]

(Luke 8:1–3) Luke's gospel is unique in documenting that there were many women who not only benefited personally from Jesus is ministry but who ministered to him and with him even to the point of accompanying him and the Twelve on evangelistic journeys. Most prominent among these is Mary Magdalene. Luke 8:1–3 in the Greek text is one long sentence. Its three main focal points are Jesus, the Twelve, and certain women. Jesus is traveling through cities and towns, preaching the Kingdom of God, evangelizing, and accompanied by the Twelve. Other than mentioning that the Twelve were with him, nothing more is said of them here. The chief motive of the paragraph seems to be to bring certain women, of whom there were "many," in the focus. This passage represents them as recipients of healing at different levels of need and as actively participating with Jesus and the Twelve in their travels, with special reference to their financial support. Luke says there were many of them and that these included women prominent in the public life of the state as well as in the church.

Luke's account specifies two categories of healing: evil spirits and infirmities. Jesus liberated and humanized people who otherwise were being enslaved or destroyed by forces within themselves and in society. Jesus healed many women of "evil spirits and infirmities." Only of Mary Magdalene does Luke provide any detail of her healing, stating that "seven demons" had been cast out. Presumably these "many" women had been healed of various illnesses, physical, emotional, and mental. No specific data is provided on Mary Magdalene's "seven demons." It's significant that women whose conditions subjected them to scorn and penalty found in Jesus a Liberator who not only enabled them to find health, but whom he dignified as full persons by accepting their own ministries to himself and to the Twelve.

It is significant that women had an open and prominent part in the ministry of Jesus. Luke's word for their "ministering" is widely used in the New Testament. Its noun cognate, diakonos, is variously translated "minister," "servant," and "deacon" (the latter in Romans 16:1 for Phoebe and in the pastoral letters). In summary, Jesus attracted to his movement a large number of women, ranging from some in desperate need to some in official circles of government.

[edit] Twelve and no women^[10]

Each of the four listings in the New Testament indicates that all of the Twelve were men (Mark 3:13–19; Matthew 10:1–4; Luke 6:12–16, Acts 1:13). The names vary in the four lists, but their male identity is clear. Why were the Twelve all men? The fact that they were is often cited as biblical evidence that pastors should all be male. The New Testament gives no clear answer why the example of Jesus in choosing his apostles is not a complete overcoming of male bias. Several considerations may be placed alongside this one. Jesus advanced various principles that went beyond their immediate implementation. For example, he clearly repudiated the Jew-Samaritan antipathy, affirming not only his own Jewish kin but also the Samaritan. Yet, there are no Samaritans among the Twelve. Jesus affirmed both women and Samaritans as persons with fullest right to identity, freedom, and responsibility, but for some undisclosed reason he included neither in the circle of the Twelve. Perhaps custom here was so entrenched that Jesus simply stopped short of fully implementing a principle that he made explicit and emphatic: "whoever does the will of God is my brother, and sister, and mother" (Mark 3:35). By selecting 12 Jewish males, Jesus may have been offering a parallel to the 12 patriarchs or 12 tribes of Israel, each headed by a son of Jacob. The Twelve could dramatize both the continuity with national Israel and the discontinuity which looked beyond national Israel to a new fellowship inclusive of any who come by faith.

However the restriction of the Twelve to Jewish men is to be accounted for, Jesus did introduce far-reaching principles which bore fruit even in a former rabbi, the Apostle Paul, who at least in vision could say, "There is not any Jew nor Greek, not any slave nor free, not in male and female; for you are all one in Christ Jesus" (Galatians 3:28). Further, the inclusion of "many" women in the traveling company of Jesus represents a decisive move in the formation of a new community. The Twelve are all men and also are all Jews, but even at this point women "minister" to them. Unless one would argue that "apostolic succession" (however adapted) is for Jews only, it cannot be argued that it is for men only.

A likely explanation is that Jesus began where he was, within the structures of Judaism as he knew it in his upbringing. His closest companions initially may have been Jews, men, and men of about his own age. He began there, but he did not stop there. Even in the early stages of his mission, women were becoming deeply involved at the power center of Jesus' movement.

[edit] Jesus on Family Relationships

Matthew 12:46 Jesus ate with a Pharisee leader one evening, where he invited the gathered guests to follow him. The guests gave reasons why they could not, including marriage and recent financial acquisitions (Luke 14:18-20). Jesus responded, "If anyone comes to me and does not hate father and mother, wife and children, brothers and sisters—yes, even life itself—such a person cannot be my disciple" (Luke 14:26). Various expositors suggest that "hate" is an example of comparative hyperbolic biblical language, prominent in some Eastern cultures even today, to imply "love less than me,"^[13] "compared to Christ,"^[14] the Semitic idea of "lower preference,"^[15] a call to count the cost of following Jesus.^[16]

(Matthew 12:48-50) When he was told that his mother and brothers waited for him outside and wanted to speak to him, Jesus created a novel definition of family. He said to the people who were gathered to hear him speak, "Who is my mother? and who are my brethren? And he stretched forth his hand toward his disciples, and said, 'Behold my mother and my brethren! For whosoever shall do the will of my Father which is in heaven, the same is my brother, and sister, and mother.'"

[edit] Biblical interpretations supporting equal roles for men and women

The following are just a few of the scriptural references that can be interpreted to allow greater equality between men and women:

• In Acts 2:14-18, in Peter's sermon at the initiation of the modern church, he quotes the prophet Joel about the pouring out of the Spirit in the last days: the quoted benefits of the Spirit are shared equally by men and women. In fact, both sons and daughters will prophesy. (Prophecy here is not so much a foretelling of the future—rather the primary meaning is to speak for God.) Exact quote: Acts 2:17-18 says, "In the last days, God says, I will pour out my Spirit on all people. Your sons and daughters will prophesy, your young men will see visions, your old men will dream dreams. Even on my servants, both men and women, I will pour out my Spirit in those days, and they will prophesy."
• "There is neither Jew nor Greek, slave nor free, male nor female, for you are all one in Christ Jesus." Galatians 3:28.
• " The husband should give to his wife her conjugal rights, and likewise the wife to her husband. For the wife does not have authority over her own body, but the husband does; likewise the husband does not have authority over his own body, but the wife does." 1 Corinthians 7:3-5.
• Paul is accompanied by house-church leaders Priscilla and Aquila. Priscilla, a female, is a dominant figure in Paul's ministry and leads with Aquila.
• A woman named Junia is mentioned of note among the apostles (KJV) Romans 16:7. While Junia's gender is not perfectly clear in the Greek, there is considerable evidence that she was a woman. One of the earliest Christian commentators on the subject, John Chrysostom (349-407) wrote: "how great the wisdom of this woman must have been that she was even deemed worthy of the title of apostle." Without exception, the Church Fathers in late antiquity identified Andronicus' partner in Rom 16:7 as a woman, as did a 9th century church record which recorded iounia with an acute accent, meaning feminine. When later medieval copyists of Rom 16:7 could not imagine a woman being an apostle, they wrote the masculine name "Junias."^[17]
• In Romans 16:1-2, Phoebe is commended as a deacon—not a deaconess—but a deacon in the sense of a preacher, a minister. Paul's word for women's "ministering" is widely used in the New Testament. Its noun cognate, diakonos, is variously translated "minister," "servant," and "deacon" (the latter in Romans 16:1 for Phoebe and in the pastoral letters). Paul uses the same word for himself. Paul writes this as a recommendation for Phoebe who is probably the president of the Christian community in Cenchreae and a deacon that is a preacher ^[18]
• Two passages which do not specifically mention women are also seen to support any person who does Christ's work. In Mark 9:38 the disciples report to Jesus that someone is casting out demons in his name. They said they forbade that person because he is not "one of us." Jesus tells the disciples to leave him alone. Those who are not against us are for us, he says. Even a cup of water given in Jesus' name should not be opposed and will have its reward.
• Jesus' stories often centered on deeds of compassion and generosity, traits often associated with womankind—and many of his parables involved women. An example is the Parable of the widow's mite, in which a relatively tiny gift from an impoverished woman is regarded by Christ as being a generous gift, equal with a lavish gift from a rich man, because the money was needed more by the poor woman—the rich man could easily afford to be generous.
• Much of the imagery in the Bible depicts the Church as a bride, with Jesus Christ as the bridegroom. Therefore, every woman in some sense is an icon of the Christian Church. Men are also encouraged to live as icons of Christ, but to imitate Christ's humility and laying down of his life, rather than attempting to imitate Christ's lordship (see Ephesians 5.21).

God expects all church members, male and female, to use the gifts God has given them (within the guidelines in scripture and in reverence to God's order and design). Below are Scriptures that show women using their God-given gifts in both the Old and New Testaments:

• Exodus 15:20-21 and Micah 6:4; (Miriam is sent along with Moses and Aaron).
• Judges 4 and 5 (Deborah was both a prophetess and judge of Israel).
• 2 Kings 22:14-20 (Huldah was a prophetess).
• Isaiah 8:3 (Isaiah's wife is referred to as a prophetess).
• Matthew 28, Mark 16, John 20 (Women were first to testify of Jesus' resurrection).
• Luke 2:36-38 (Anna the prophetess gave thanks and spoke of Jesus in the temple).
• Acts 2:16-18 (Promises that "your daughters will prophesy" Note: 1 Corinthians 14:3-4 says that he who prophesies does so to men and edifies the church).
• Acts 21:8-9 (Philip's four daughters prophesied).
• Romans 16:1-2 (Paul commends Phoebe as a "servant" which is the Greek word diakonos (Strong's reference number G1249) which is also translated as "deacon" in 1 Timothy 3:8. Apostle Paul refers to himself with the same Greek word in 1 Corinthians 3:5 (translated as "minister").
• Romans 16:3-4 (Paul refers to Priscilla and Aquila, a husband wife team, as helpers in Christ. In Acts 18:24-26 Aquila and Priscilla taught and corrected Apollos so that he could understand the gospel more perfectly).
• Romans 16:7 (Junia and her husband are listed as apostles).
• Romans 16:12 (Tryphena, Tryphosa, and Persis labored in the Lord).
• Philippians 4:3 (Women labored with Paul in the Gospel).

[edit] Biblical interpretations supporting unequal roles for women and men

There are many scriptural references that reveal distinct functions/roles between men and women at home and in the church:

• The Bible endorses different functions/roles between men and women in the home. (1 Peter 3:1-6; Eph 5:22, 25; Titus 2:4; Colossians 3:18-19). In general, men are exhorted to lead with love and consideration, while women are told to submit with loving reverence
• Both Paul and Peter refer to the Old Testament to justify the submission of woman to man; the creation of Eve after Adam (1 Corinthians 11:8-9) and the transgression of Eve before Adam (1 Timothy 2:12).
• 1 Corinthians 14:34 states that women must not speak/preach in Church "as also saith the law" (KJV), but there is no reference in the Old Testament to support this. 14:35 goes on to state that "it is a shame for women to speak in the church," and that women should be taught only by their husbands. Many NT scholars have argued that a Greek particle that appears many times within Paul's writings—usually used when Paul is quoting a mistaken position and then refuting it—is used here. The particle comes directly at the beginning of 1 Corinthians 14:36, and is translated "What?" in the KJV; this leads some to believe that Paul is actually quoting a prior Corinthian letter in 1 Cor 14:34-35 and then refuting the proud Corinthian doctrine later.
• Colossians 3:18-23 in particular is addressed directly to specific groups: women are to submit to the leadership of their husband, men to love their wives and not to treat them with harshness, children to respect their parents, fathers not to frustrate their children, and slaves to obey their masters.
• 1 Peter 3:1-6 justifies submission on the grounds that "Sara obeyed Abraham, calling him lord" (KJV).

Distinct-gender churches argue that Paul taught that the same principles apply in a formal church setting:

• Paul addresses women in formal church settings to keep silent based on Torah law regarding female subjugation to men (1 Cor 14:34-35). However, there is debate as to how much this should be seen as Paul speaking to a specific congregation at a specific time, and whether the passage speaks directly to today's society.^[19][20][21]
• Women are told to learn in silence with attitudes of subjugation in church (1 Timothy 2:12-15) However, learning in silence was common practice for any rabbinical student at the time^{[citation needed]}.
• Women are restricted from teaching and "usurping" authority over men in formal church settings (1 Timothy 2:12-15).
• Women seem not to be considered in verses that discuss the criteria for selecting bishops and deacons (Titus 1:5-, 1 Timothy 3:1-12, 14-15).
• Jesus did not choose any women to be apostles. After Jesus' ascension, the apostles seem not to have considered female candidates when choosing a replacement for Judas, or when choosing seven leaders (Luke 6:13; Acts 1:14-26; Acts 6:3). Jesus had several women followers, notably Mary Magdalene, but no female apostles.
• These exhortations were given to various church contexts and to traveling evangelists (Timothy, Titus) who were told to remain true to these specific teachings (removing the argument that they were cultural prescriptions), letters often circulated to all the churches, coincided (within the texts themselves) with teachings regarding family order, coincided with Torah, there is a consistency of doctrine in all letters of the NT, coincides with early church documents and traditions, and noted by Paul to be the commands of the Lord and traditions among "all the churches of God" (Areas: Corinth, Ephesus, Crete, etc.; 1 Corinthians 11:1-16; 1 Corinthians 14:33-38; 1 Timothy 3:14-15).
• Supporters of gender distinction often argue that gender distinction does not endorse oppression or abuse of authority. They say those in leadership are given mandates to rule with godliness and love, and that love must be subject to Christ's example.

[edit] Current church views of women's roles

In general, the issues have been what the proper role of women is (a) in marriage; (b) in the church; (c) in society at large. Among the denominations, movements, and organizations that express or have previously expressed a view, there are four main views:

1. Full equality of roles and rights:
   • American Baptist Churches USA
   • Assemblies of God
   • Baptist Union of Great Britain
   • Christians for Biblical Equality
   • Church of the Brethren
   • Episcopal Church USA
   • Evangelical Covenant Church
   • Evangelical Lutheran Church in America
   • Evangelische Kirche in Deutschland
   • Free Methodist Church
   • Presbyterian Church USA
   • Religious Society of Friends (Quakers)- Quakers have always believed in the legitimacy of women's ministry, with only a few exceptions in the early years. In 1848 at a conference in Seneca Falls, New York, 100 men and women signed a declaration that "all men and women are created equally." Early leaders of the movement were Quaker, including Lucretia Mott.
   • United Church of Canada
   • United Church of Christ
   • United Methodist Church
   • Uniting Church in Australia
   • Many others
2. Full secular equality but restricted ecclesiastical roles and privileges:
   • Eastern Orthodox Church
   • Presbyterian Church in America
   • Presbyterian Church of Australia
   • Roman Catholic Church
   • Lutheran Church-Missouri Synod
   • Lutheran Church-Wisconsin Synod
   • Many others
3. Restricted roles or rights in both secular and ecclesiastical life:
   • Council on Biblical Manhood and Womanhood
   • Jehovah's Witnesses
   • Orthodox Presbyterian Church
4. Forced restricted roles or rights
   • Christian Reconstructionism
   • Dominion theology
5. Mixed
   • Southern Baptist Convention's official position^[22] is to prohibit females from becoming clergy, and to insist that a wife "graciously submit" to the leadership of her husband. Members of an individual ("local") Southern Baptist church are allowed to vote on matters of business of the church that include the hiring of a pastor. However, many churches that have chosen female clergy as their pastor have been disenfranchised by either local or state Baptist associations.

The above lists are examples and are obviously not exhaustive. It is not always clear which category a church or movement falls into. The fourth view—forced restricted roles or rights—has been criticized as contravening international norms of human rights and is not enforceable under various national constitutions and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights.

The Wesleyan tradition and the Holiness and Pentecostal movements, as well as a growing number of contemporary Charismatic churches which draw from them, have increasingly accepted women as leaders on an equal footing with men.

Roman Catholicism, although not in conformity with some modern Western views on this issue, has increasingly addressed the issue from the highest levels, including the Papal Office. For instance, Pope John Paul II has addressed this issue in his 1995 "Letter to Women", his 1996 "Address on Promoting the Well-Being of Women", and the 1988 Apostolic Letter "On the Dignity and Vocation of Women", for examples.

Other notes: There is a controversial passage in 1Corinthians 11:1-16 whereby women are allowed to speak in formal church settings with the condition that they are veiled. It may be argued that the ruling principle is not limitation, but that ministry should be done with an attitude of reverence and submission to those in authority, and God's design and order. Paul reveals through the guidelines and principles of gender distinction that God is concerned with the preservation of family, creation, and church order. Thus, men's leadership roles are formally endorsed throughout the pages of scripture as opposed to women's.

However, in scripture, one can find that outside contexts of formality, women operate in many gifts of the Spirit like evangelizing, prophesying, serving, praying, teaching, laboring in ministry, preaching (John 4:28-30; 1 Cor 11:1-16; Matt 27:55; Acts 1:14; Acts 18:26; Phil 4:3; Luke 2:36-38).

[edit] References and notes

[edit] Catholic Church references

• "Declaration Inter Insigniores on the question of the Admission of Women to the Ministerial Priesthood." Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith, October 15, 1976.
• Apostolic Letter Ordinatio Sacerdotalis (On Ordination to the Priesthood)." Pope John Paul II, May 22, 1994.
• "Apostolic Letter Mulieris Dignitatem (On the Dignity of Women)." Pope John Paul II, August 15, 1988.
• Catechism of the Catholic Church. Many Christians also see Mary as the prototypical Christian, as in the Bible she was the first to hear the Good News of Jesus' coming. She is one of the few of Jesus' followers reported to be present at his crucifixion. Thus she is a woman who is most imitated among Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox saints.

[edit] Literature on the History of Women in the Early Christian Church

• Torjesen, Karen Jo. When Women were Priests: Women's Leadership in the Early Church & The Scandal of their Subordination in the Rise of Christianity. New York, NY: Harper Collins Publisher, 1995.
• Wiley,Tatha. Paul and the Gentile Women: Reframing Galatians New York: Continuum, 2005.
• MacDonald, Margaret. "Reading Real Women Through Undisputed Letters of Paul." In Women and Christian Origins edited by Ross Sheppard Kraemer and Mary Rose D'Angelo. Oxford: University Press, 1999.
• Witherington, Ben III. Women in the Earliest Churches. Cambridge/ New York: Cambridge University Press, 1988.

[edit] See also

• Christian egalitarianism
• Christian feminism
• Christians for Biblical Equality an egalitarian organization
• Complementarianism
• Katharine Bushnell Pioneer Christian feminist
• Old Testament views on women
• Quaker views of women
• Women as theological figures

[edit] External links

• Christians for Biblical Equality, and egalitarian organization
• The Council for Biblical Manhood and Womanhood, a complementarian organization
• "The Ministry of Women"—by William MacDonald