British involvement in Rhodesia
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This article concerns Southern Rhodesia, later Rhodesia and its history in the British Empire before the territory became independent Zimbabwe.
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[edit] Pre-Colonial History
The Bushmen are the earliest known people to inhabit the region of Rhodesia, now known as Zimbabwe. The Bushmen are believed to have overtaken the previous inhabitants around 6000 BC to 5000 BC, about whom there is very little known (Blake 6). The Bushmen’s cave paintings are the earliest known forms of “man-made spectacles,” which are celebrated in Southern Africa (6).
“At a date not known with any precision the Bushmen were driven out by the Bantu -- a race unmistakably negroid, more advanced, formidable and aggressive. They were the forebears of the Shona-speaking peoples who constitute three-quarters of the African population today” (6). The Bantu peoples are recognized for their famous dry stone ruins, known as The Great Zimbabwe “burial ground of the chiefs”.
The kingdom of the Monomatapa is another known tribe which had great influence on the Rhodesian region. The precise date of the beginning of the Monomatapa tribe is unknown. It is believed that the Monomatapa originated from a tribe known as the Karanaga, who are believed to have come from somewhere in the vicinity of Lake Tanganyika [Central Africa]” (8).
The Arabs had great influence over tribes on the eastern part of the African coast near Madagascar. They established a trading post on the island of Madagascar in the 7th century, which led to their interactions with Southern Africans. The extent of the interaction is evident by the fact that Changa, a ruler of the Monomatapa, “assumed the Arab title of Amir” (9).
The belief among Europeans is that the country [Rhodesia] was the Ophir of Biblical fame and contained fabulous quantities of gold. Although Rhodesia does have deposits of auriferous ore, no great lode has ever been discovered. Yet, delusions can shape history as potently as reality. The lure of Ophir drew adventurers, explorers and invaders to Rhodesia over many centuries, and led directly to the creation of the modern state. (9)
The lure of wealth and the fierce competition with the Muslims over trade routes were the primary reasons for the Portuguese involvement in Rhodesia as early as 1509. The Portuguese, however, were not to settle in Rhodesia. Intense competition with the Muslims, along with battles with the Monomatapa, and the decline of the Portuguese empire, might have led to the Portuguese defeat in Rhodesia (Wills 30). “The gap between Portuguese military technology and that of the Karanaga Chiefdom was large, but not as large as the gulf between nineteenth-century Britain and the kingdom of Lobengula. Portugal was a declining power for much of the period of its African venture, and in 1580 fell under the rule of Spain for the next sixty years” (Blake 11).
At the end of the 16th century, the king of Portugal, Sebastian, decided to send an expedition force to Rhodesia, creating a friction among the Monomatapa peoples and the Portuguese. In 1629, the Monomatapa tried to eject the Portuguese, starting a war between Portugal and native Rhodesian tribes. In the end, the tribes joined and wiped out the settlers in 1693, thus ending Portuguese settlements in Rhodesia.
The Matabele (or more commonly Ndebele), were warriors who had split off from the Zulu tribe in Southern Africa in the early 1800s. The leader of the Matabele, Mzilikazi, was a lieutenant of Shaka, leader of the Zululand tribe. Mzilikazi was accused of betraying Shaka and fled northward in 1823. Approximately 500 Zulus under Mzilikazi fled north, conquered, and absorbed local tribes into the Matabele Nation. The Matabele nation battled and defeated the Shona-speaking people of Southern Africa and in 1834 claimed what is now west and southwest Zimbabwe, as Matabeleland (Ndebele people (Zimbabwe) 1). In 1836, within two years of the founding of Matabeleland, Mzilikazi signed a treaty of friendship with the Cape Colony, in which the Matabele undertook “to be a faithful friend and ally of the Cape Colony, to maintain peace, to protect white people, who, with his consent, visited or were resident in his country” (Samkange 28).
The Boers, Dutch descendants in South Africa, set off on The Great Trek in the 1830s to 1840s to escape British rule in the Cape Colony of South Africa. The Boers migrated to an area northwest of the Limpopo and established Transvaal. The Matabele who had established their nation in Zimbabwe had finally met their match when they clashed with the Boers of Transvaal. The Matabele suffered major defeats from the Boers and as a result, Mzilikazi signed a treaty in 1853 with Transvaal as long as the two nations recognized boundaries and safe passage of Boers through Matabeleland (Transvaal 1). “It was a turning point in Ndebele history. From 1840 to 1853, the King had pursued a policy of diplomatic isolation. This now ended, less by consent than from prudent recognition of an ultimately irresistible military threat. The white man with gun and Bible had arrived” (Blake 21).
[edit] Cecil’s Rhodesia
Several important factors led the way to the northward expansion from Cape Colony to the northern regions of the Zambezi River. One of the most important factors was the discovery of immense gold mines, in 1886, in Witwatersrand in the Transvaal Region, northeast of Cape Colony. The British feared that the Boers in Transvaal with their newly found wealth would become a regional power and threaten British supremacy in the region. “The immediate threat to the Cape ‘colonialism’ was the extension of the Transvaal westwards across the ‘missionary road’ to the north until the Boer Frontier became contiguous with German South West Africa” (Blake 31). The expansion of Transvaal would limit British expansion into the hinterland and would make it impossible for Cecil Rhodes, now a multimillionaire in Cape Colony, from achieving his dream of a transcontinental railroad from Cape to Cairo (Cecil Rhodes 1).
The discovery of gold also led to speculations of gold mines in Matabeleland north of Cape Colony. Rhodes and other mining companies wanted to send expeditions to the north to mine for gold and other valuable metals. However, the Grobler Treaty between Transvaal and Lobengula, leader of the Matabele’s, threatened mining expeditions in the north. The Treaty, signed in 1887, stated that there would be peace between Matabele and Transvaal, claimed Lobengula as sole chieftain of the region, renders Lobengula committed to Transvaal in times of need, and gave passage to the people of Transvaal in Matabeleland (Samkange 52). The one-sided treaty was viewed as a threatening act by the Boers to the interests of the British Empire.
In response to the Grobler Treaty, Britain sent an envoy led by Reverend John Smith Moffat; the result of the embassy was a British treaty, signed in 1888, with Lobengula. In this treaty, Lobengula repudiated the treaty signed with the Boers, and Lobengula stated that it was not his words in the Grobler Treaty. The treaty also gave Britain almost veto-like power over Matabele foreign affairs:
- "It is hereby further agreed by Lobengula, Chief, in and over the Amandebele country with its dependencies as aforesaid, on behalf of himself and people, that he will refrain from entering into any correspondence or treaty with any Foreign State or power to sell, alienate or cede, or permit or countenance any sale, alienation or cession of the whole or any part of the said Amandebele country under the chieftainship or upon any other subject, without the previous knowledge and sanction of Her Majesty’s High Commissioner for South Africa." (58)
It should be noted that historians have put the authenticity of the Grobler Treaty, as well as the Moffat Treaty into doubt. The claim being that Lobengula would not have ceded so much authority to the British as well as the Boers. “It is clear that Moffat’s version of his treaty is nothing but one huge, monstrous, naked lie. Why should Lobengula have placed himself so completely in British hands? Lobengula was very sensitive about this” (66).
The Rudd Concession was the first major involvement of Rhodes in Matabeleland. He sent three emissaries to meet with Lobengula in the hopes of obtaining concession rights to mine in Matabeleland. The concession was led by Charles Dunnell Rudd, a business partner of Rhodes, Rochfort Maguire, a London lawyer, and Francis Thompson, an expert native of African affairs (70). Lobengula brushed the envoy aside and the envoy was made to wait months without any appearance of the chieftain. After several months in Matabeleland, the envoy received their appearance with Lobengula, who was interested in obtaining guns, ammunition, and a steamboat to protect him from other African tribes to the north. In return, the Rudd concession received full rights to mine in Matabeleland. The treaty signed October 30, 1888 stated:
- "...and do hereby covenant and agree to pay my heirs and successor the sum of hundred pound sterling, British currency, on the first day of every lunar month, and further to deliver at my Royal Kraal one thousand Martini-Henry breech rifles, together with one hundred thousand rounds of suitable ball cartridges, five hundred of the said rifles and fifty thousand of the said cartridges to be ordered from England forthwith ...and further to deliver on the Zambezi River a steamboat with guns ... on the execution of these presents. I, Lobengula, King of the Matabele, Mashonaland and other adjoining territories, in the exercise of my sovereign powers and in the presence with the consent of my Council of Induans, do herby grant and assign unto the said grantees, their heirs, representatives, and assign jointly and severally, the complete and exclusive charge over all metals and minerals situated and contained in my kingdoms." (78)
With the Rudd Concession in hand, Rhodes set out to England in the hopes of legitimizing his concession as well as gaining the approval of Queen Victoria to govern under a Royal Charter. The idea of monopoly in Matabele by Rhodes was not a popular idea; there were many Members of Parliament set against the idea of monopoly, as well as the idea of granting sole rights to a man like Rhodes. After many months of charming heads of state, Rhodes received approval of a Royal Charter by Her Majesty. On 14 November 1889, the Colonial Secretary addressed in a dispatch that the Queen had approved a Royal Charter forming the British South Africa Company (BSAC) and in the process forming the country of Rhodesia.
The BSAC was formed to mine the Matabeleland for gold and other precious metals; however, the British government had other reasons in granting such enormous powers to Rhodes under the Royal Charter. Following the events of South Africa with the Boers, the British government concluded, “it was not in the best interests of Great Britain to ditch him [Rhodes] because this would only expose Matabeleland to Boer and Portuguese encroachment. It was Britain’s policy to block the expansion into Central Africa of the Transvaal Boer Republic, the Portuguese, who already has a foothold on the eastern coast, and the Germans” (145). The charter gave Britain some control over Rhodesia without exposing Great Britain to any financial risks. Due to the nature of the Charter, the BSAC was granted almost sovereign-like powers. The company was empowered to deal with Lobengula, to form banks, manage and distribute land, and to raise a police force, the British South Africa Police (BSAP).
[edit] British Involvement in Rhodesia
With the Charter in hand, the first pioneers were set out to make their claim in Matabeleland. Rhodes enlisted men, particularly men with African experience, to make settlement in Matabeleland. The pioneers set off for the north and established the city of Salisbury, which eventually became the capital of Rhodesia. With the continuation of pioneers into the area, Lobengula felt threatened by the white settlers. "While traders set up their stores, men hurriedly explored the surrounding country for gold claims and farming land. Hopes of rich gold finds mostly came to nothing, and the severe disillusionment that followed on this discovery did more to threaten the success of the whole enterprise" (Blake 143) (Wills 145).
The continuation of the settlers came to crisis in June 1893, "some Shona tribesmen cut and stole five hundred yards of wire from the Fort Victoria telegraph, and in retaliation the Company police confiscated a herd of cattle" belonging to Lobengula (148). As a result of the cattle incident, Leander Starr Jameson, a friend of Rhodes, held a meeting with the Matabele in Fort Victoria. The arrogant manner of the Matabele in the meeting annoyed Jameson, and he told the natives to leave Fort Victoria. However, a few of the natives had been slow to move and an ex-police officer, Captain Lendy, opened fire. Most Ndebele escaped but a few of the natives perished (148). This event set off an inevitable war with Lobengula.
Jameson with the use of Maxim machine guns and with his promise of land, enlisted hundreds of men to defeat the Matabele in 1893-1894. The Maxim gun was one of the most powerful weapons at the time and the causality rates of the native Matabele was staggering. "In one engagement, 50 soldiers fought off 5,000 warriors with just four Maxim guns" (Maxim gun 1). The public believed that Rhodes and his fellow accomplices were responsible for orchestrating the war with the Matabele nation. Upon the defeat of Lobengula, Rhodes set out to acquire for his company the lands which he had just conquered (Wills 160). Upon the defeat of Lobengula and the annexation of the Matabele land into the BSAC charter in 1895, the territory now under control by the BSAC was named "Rhodesia" (Rhodesia 1). The defeat of the Lobengula also led the way to mass colonization in Rhodesia, without the Matabele or Shona threat; the land was ripe for colonization by Cape Colony and British residents.
The primary reason for settlement in Rhodesia was the prospect of amassing a considerable fortune in gold. However, the settlers did not full grasp the reality until the early 1900s. There was no great single source of mineral wealth in Rhodesia. "The dramatic story of the Californian, Canadian, Australian and South African gold strikes was not after all repeated here" (Wills 193). Gold was scattered among ancient workings, but it was unlike the Witwatersrand, where gold was found in one rich reef.
The BSAC understood that the lack of gold would inhibit the colonization of Rhodesia, and so in 1903 the BSAC abandoned a law requiring companies with BSAC interests in mining for minerals in Rhodesia. The abandonment of the law created a surge in small worker companies. "These 'small workers' effected a revolution in Southern Rhodesian gold mining that was assisted by the Companies revision of its royalties policy. Between 1904 and 1906 output, doubled to 551,895 oz" of gold (194). Moreover, the discovery of natural resources, other than gold, led to further expansions and claims in Rhodesia. "Meanwhile other mineral deposits had been found of which, apart from the huge coal field at Wankie, asbestos was to prove the most important. The production of fiber at Shabani began in 1908; Southern Rhodesia was in time to become the third largest producer in the world. Chrome and zinc were also being produced before the war"; not to mention the existence of copper in the north of Rhodesia (194). The BSAC also setup a Land Settlement Department in the hopes of giving the people of Rhodesia self-sufficiency. The Land Settlement Department along with the Land Bank granted loans for farm development, to provide self-sufficiency and provide an agricultural substance to the growing population of Rhodesia.
The railway system built by the BSAC was a great cause of social and economic change in Central Africa. The BSAC linked several cities such as Umtali with the capital in Salisbury, creating a railroad network along the routes of the mineral resources such as coal, asbestos, fiber, etc. The railroad network also greatly reduced the chances of revolt by native Africans, by linking major supply routes and forts, and allowing the BSAP to be more accessible in farther regions of Rhodesia (Blake 141-143).
In 1898, a new constitution, by order of the High Commissioner and Colonial office in England, was formed to govern Rhodesia. The constitution set up a Resident Commissioner, with the power to veto any legislation that discriminated Africans. More significantly there was a new Legislative Council formed, made up by ten members to look over the affairs of Rhodesia. The death of Cecil Rhodes came as no surprise to his fellow colleagues; his illness was the primary reason for moving to Cape Colony. His death coincided with the Second Boer War of the late 1800s. Rhodes was instrumental in establishing the BSAC, and instrumental in colonizing and modernizing the nation of Rhodesia. His death in 1902 marked the end of his long-lived dream of a transcontinental railroad, as well as diminished the capacity of the BSAC.
By 1915, the Company’s twenty-five year charter had expired. The renewal of the charter was conditional on a new clause. The new clause of the charter stated:
- "If at any time after 29 October 1915, the Legislate Council of Southern Rhodesia, shall, by absolute majority,... pass a resolution praying the Crown to establish in Southern Rhodesia the form of government know as Responsible Government, and shall support such Resolution with evidence showing that the condition of the territory financially and in other respects is such as to justify the establishment of such governments’ setups would be taken accordingly." (Wills 243)
The decline of the BSAC was at hand, most of the settlers at that time believed that the BSAC charter should end. For the BSAC was responsible to its shareholders and the settlers in Rhodesia believed that the time had come for a Responsible Government (243). With the clause in the new charter, the referendum vote was set in 1920 for Responsible Government. "Out of a European population of 35,000 some 20,000 were on the register. (The Black was nearly 900,000 with sixty on the register.) The vote for Responsible Government was 8,774, for union 5,989" (Blake 187). "The Chartered Company thus ceased to rule the Rhodesians. Its board of directors and its officials were often criticized and sometimes abused, but its contribution to the building of the country was a notable one, and Southern Rhodesia owes it a debt too often forgotten." (188)
[edit] Responsible Government and the End of British and White Rule
With Responsible Government came a new constitution and general elections. The assembly voted by majority; however, the constitution did have limits in powers. The Imperial Government retained the right to legislate, to appoint the Governor, and native affairs were at the behest of the High Commissioner, who was Governor General of South Africa.
"By 1953 Southern and Northern Rhodesia were combined with Nyasaland, (now called Malawi) to form the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland" (Rhodesia 2). Friction within the federation eventually led to the dissolution of the Federation in 1963, with the three territories branching off, South Rhodesia was now known as Rhodesia. The dissolution of the federation furthered the independence movement within Rhodesia. The white minority demanded independence from Imperial Rule. However, the British Government had adopted a policy of NIMBAR – No Independence before Majority Rule (2). In response to the policy of NIMBAR on November 11, 1965, then-Prime Minister Ian Smith unilaterally declared independence from the Crown. Tensions between Great Britain and Rhodesia were at extreme levels. Great Britain believed that the act of unilateral independence was an act of rebellion; however, Great Britain did not attempt to reestablish control through force. Negotiations between Rhodesia and Great Britain took place in 1966 and 1968; however, the two sides could not reach an agreement on African rule. In response, "the UK requested UN economic sanctions against Rhodesia. In an attempt to distance the country from its colonial master, Smith declared Rhodesia a republic in 1970, but this did not result in international recognition." (2)
The wave of African Nationalism, which took place in the 1960s and 1970s, led to a rash of attacks on white farmers in Rhodesia. The end of white rule in neighboring Mozambique in 1975 intensified fighting in Rhodesia. The resulting intensification led to a large-scale uprising known as “the Second Chimurenga or The Bush War” (Rhodesia 2). The ensuing civil war between Smith’s government and independence fighters led to the negotiations between Smith’s government and the Zimbabwe African Nation Union (ZANU) led by Robert Mugabe (Blake 365-368).
The government was near collapse in 1978, and so Smith had no choice but to sign an accord with black leaders in the hopes of safeguarding the white population in Rhodesia. The accord failed, and the British Government set up a conference to negotiate with all sides in 1979. The following agreement in Lancaster House in 1979-1980, led to an appointed governor, "Lord Soames, to oversee the disarming of guerrillas, the holding of elections and the granting of independence to a coalition government” (Rhodesia 3). Under the terms of the Lancaster House Agreement, Britain resumed control for a brief time in 1979/1980 and then granted independence to Zimbabwe/Rhodesia in 1980, following the first all-party, multi-racial elections, which were won by Robert Mugabe and ZANU. On April 18, 1980, the country became independent as the Republic of Zimbabwe, and its capital, Salisbury, was renamed Harare two years later. (Rhodesia 3)
[edit] Aftermath of White Rule
The aftermath of white rule in Zimbabwe has been marked with tragedies of all sorts. Infighting in the government sparked the genocide of the Ndebele peoples in 1982. A drought has stricken the region since 1992, and in addition the debt crisis and economic recession has had major impacts on daily life in Zimbabwe. Mugabe in 1999 instituted a redistribution of land from white farmers to Africans. This ensuing redistribution has had immense uncertainty on the white population in Zimbabwe. Mass migration of whites from Zimbabwe to other African countries as well as to Great Britain has grown substantially since the introduction of the land reforms leading to a great loss of intellectual talent. The actions taken by the Mugabe regime are almost reminiscent of apartheid in South Africa. As a result, in 2002, “Zimbabwe was suspended from the Commonwealth of Nations on the basis of human rights abuses and of election tampering” (Rhodesia 3).
[edit] References
- Blake, Robert. A History of Rhodesia. New York: Alfred A. Knopft, 1978.
- Morris, James. Pax Britannica: The Climax of an Empire. London: Faber and Faber 1968.
- Samkange, Stanlake. Origins of Rhodesia. New York: Frederick A. Praeger, 1968.
- Wills, A.J. An Introduction to the History of Central Africa: Zambia, Malawi and Zimbabwe. Oxford: Oxford University Press 4th Edition, 1985.
