Biotechnology
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
 |
This article or section reads like a personal reflection or essay and may require cleanup. Please improve this article by rewriting this article or section in an encyclopedic style. (documentation, talk) |
Biological technology is technology based on biology, especially when used in agriculture, food science, and medicine. The United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity has come up with one of many definitions of biotechnology:[1]
- "Biotechnology means any technological application that uses biological systems, living organisms, or derivatives thereof, to make or modify products or processes for specific use."
This definition is at odds with common usage in the United States, where "biotechnology" generally refers to recombinant DNA based and/or tissue culture based processes that have only been commercialized since the 1970s. Thus, in common usage, modifying plants or animals by breeding, which has been practiced for thousands of years, would not be considered biotechnology. This distinction emphasizes that modern, recombinant DNA based biotechnology is not just a more powerful version of existing technology, but represents something new and different; for instance, theoretically, recombinant DNA biotechnology allows us to take virtually any gene and express it in any organism; we can take the genes that make crimson color in plants and put them into guinea pigs to make pink pets, or, we can take the genes that help arctic fish survive the freezing temperatures and put them into food to increase the amount of time it can grow before it freezes. This sort of gene transfer was virtually impossible with historical processes.
There has been a great deal of talk - and money - poured into biotechnology with the hope that miracle drugs will appear. While there do seem to be a small number of efficacious drugs, in general the biotech revolution has not happened in the pharmaceutical sector. However, recent progress with monoclonal antibody based drugs, such as Genentech's Avastin (tm) suggest that biotech may finally have found a role in pharmaceutical sales.
Biotechnology combines disciplines like genetics, molecular biology, biochemistry, embryology and cell biology, which are in turn linked to practical disciplines like chemical engineering, information technology, and robotics.
Biotechnology can also be defined as the manipulation of organisms to do practical things and to provide useful products.
One aspect of biotechnology is the directed use of organisms for the manufacture of organic products (examples include beer and milk products). For another example, naturally present bacteria are utilized by the mining industry in bioleaching. Biotechnology is also used to recycle, treat waste, clean up sites contaminated by industrial activities (bioremediation), and produce biological weapons.
There are also applications of biotechnology that do not use living organisms. Examples are DNA microarrays used in genetics and radioactive tracers used in medicine.
Red biotechnology is applied to medical processes. Some examples are the designing of organisms to produce antibiotics, and the engineering of genetic cures through genomic manipulation.
White biotechnology also known as grey biotechnology, is biotechnology applied to industrial processes. An example is the designing of an organism to produce a useful chemical. White biotechnology tends to consume less in resources than traditional processes used to produce industrial goods.
Green biotechnology is biotechnology applied to agricultural processes. An example is the designing of transgenic plants to grow under specific environmental conditions or in the presence (or absence) of certain agricultural chemicals. One hope is that green biotechnology might produce more environmentally friendly solutions than traditional industrial agriculture. An example of this is the engineering of a plant to express a pesticide, thereby eliminating the need for external application of pesticides. An example of this would be Bt corn. Whether or not green biotechnology products such as this are ultimately more environmentally friendly is a topic of considerable debate.
Bioinformatics is an interdisciplinary field which addresses biological problems using computational techniques. The field is also often referred to as computational biology. It plays a key role in various areas, such as functional genomics, structural genomics, and proteomics, and forms a key component in the biotechnology and pharmaceutical sector.
The term blue biotechnology has also been used to describe the marine and aquatic applications of biotechnology, but its use is relatively rare.
[edit] The science & policy issues of modern biotechnology
In its broadest sense, “biotechnology” refers to “any technique that uses living organisms, or parts of such organisms, to make or modify products, to improve plants or animals, or to develop microorganisms for specific use.[2]”
Figure 1 shows how biotechnology has evolved through the years. On one end of the development pole are techniques of traditional biotechnology like microbial fermentation, used as early as 10,000 years ago in fermenting beer, wine and dairy products. At the other end of the development pole are the continuously evolving techniques of modern biotechnology, such as genetic engineering. Using genetic engineering techniques, the genetic makeup of an organism may be modified by inactivating or altering some of its genes and introducing other natural or artificial genes, usually from another organism.
Figure 1:The Gradient of Biotechnology
 |
[edit] What definition of biotechnology is widely accepted not only by scientists but also by governments and multilateral institutions?
The Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety defines modern biotechnology as referring to any process that involves the application of (i) in vitro nucleic acid techniques, including recombinant deoxyribonucleic acid and direct injection of nucleic acid into cells or organelles, or (ii) fusion of cells beyond the taxonomic family, that overcome natural physiological reproductive or recombination of barriers and that are not techniques used in traditional breeding and selection.[3]
Although the Protocol is not yet in force (because less than the required 50 States have either ratified or acceded to it), the Protocol’s definition of modern biotechnology has gained currency in international circles.
However, while there may be an emerging international consensus on the above definition, strictly speaking it is a definition that is applicable only when one uses the term “modern biotechnology” for purposes of interpreting or implementing the Protocol.
[edit] What technical terms should a policy maker know to understand biotechnology?
There are at least four such technical terms: genetics, genes, genome and genetically modified organisms.
Genetics is the branch of biology that deals with the principles of heredity and variation in all living things. It is the study of why and how parents pass on some of their distinguishing features to their offspring. Its focus is on genes and their functions.
The gene is the basic unit of heredity and the ultimate arbiter of what we are. It carries instructions that allow cells to produce specific proteins. (It should be noted, however, that only certain genes are active at any given moment and environment.[4])
A gene is a part of the deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) molecule.[5] DNA, which is present in all living cells, contains information coding for cellular structure, organization and function.[6] It is made up of two strands twisted around each other in a helical staircase.[7]
Figure 2: DNA, Genes and Proteins
 |
Each cell in an organism has one or two sets of the basic DNA complement, called a genome. The genome is itself made up of one or more extremely long linear array of molecules of DNA that are called chromosomes. Genes, as explained earlier, are the functional regions of the DNA. They are the active segments of the chromosomes.[8] Figure 3 shows how the genome, chromosomes, DNA and genes relate to each other:
Figure 3. Successive Enlargements of an Organism with Focus on Genetic Material
Source:Griffiths, A.J.F., J.H. Miller, D.T. Suzuki, R.C. Lewontin, and W.M. Gelbart. 1996. An Introduction to Genetic Analysis. New York: W.H. Freeman and Company.
In modern biotechnology,[9] the genome of an organism is altered by exposing cells to fragments of “foreign” DNA carrying the desirable genes, often from another species. This DNA is taken in and inserts itself into one or more of the recipient’s chromosomes at a location where it is inherited like any other part of the genome. The cells so modified are called transgenic cells. It is from transgenic cells that a GMO can be produced. All of the GMO’s cells contain the additional foreign DNA.[10]
There is no universal definition for genetically modified organism (also called “transgenic organism” or “living modified organism”). However, it is generally understood to be a plant, animal or microorganism that contains genes that have been altered or transferred from another species or from the same species by means of genetic engineering techniques.
[edit] What role does information technology play in the development of modern biotechnology?
Our knowledge of biology has grown in such a way that we need powerful tools to organize that knowledge. Information technology, through the field of bioinformatics,[11] makes possible the rapid organization and analysis of biological data. Bioinformatics merges biology, computer science, and information technology to manage and analyze genomic data, with the ultimate goal of understanding and modeling living systems.[12]
[edit] Why do we have to familiarize ourselves with the science of and issues surrounding modern biotechnology?
There are at least two reasons. The first has to do with the potential benefits that modern biotechnology offers humankind. The European Commission (2002)[13] [hereafter “European Commission”] refers to modern biotechnology as the “next wave of the knowledge-based economy” after information technology, and the “most promising of the frontier technologies.”[14] It has identified applications in the following areas:
1. Health care. Biotechnology can be used to arrive at novel and innovative approaches to meet the needs of ageing populations and poor countries.
2. Crop production. Biotechnology can deliver improved food quality and environmental benefits through agronomically improved crops. It may be used to produce foods with enhanced qualities like higher nutritional benefits.
3. Non-food uses of crops. Biotechnology can also improve non-food uses of crops as sources of industrial feedstock or new materials such as biodegradable plastics. For example, canola is now being used to produce high-value industrial oil. Under the appropriate economic and fiscal conditions, biomass can contribute to alternative energy with both liquid and solid biofuels (e.g., biodiesel and bioethanol) and processes such as bio-desulphurisation.[15]
4. Environmental uses. New ways of protecting and improving the environment are possible with biotechnology, including bioremediation of polluted air, soil, water and waste, as well as the development of cleaner industrial products and processes like biocatalysis.[16]
The second reason why knowledge of biotechnology is important is that with more biotechnology-derived products being placed on the market, chances are these products will find their way into most countries, even those that do not use biotechnology for production. A government needs to be familiar with modern biotechnology if it is to effectively regulate biotechnological products and ensure that any adverse effects, if any, on the environment, human health, and social structures are properly managed, if not avoided
[edit] Applications in Medicine
[edit] What are the applications of modern biotechnology in the medical field?
In medicine, modern biotechnology finds promising applications in:
- pharmacogenomics;
- drug production;
- genetic testing; and
- gene therapy.
[edit] What is pharmacogenomics? What are its anticipated benefits?
Pharmacogenomics is the study of how the genetic inheritance of an individual affects his/her body’s response to drugs. It is a coined word derived from the words “pharmacology” and “genomics”. It is therefore the study of the relationship between pharmaceuticals and genetics. The vision of pharmacogenomics is to be able to design and produce drugs that are adapted to each person’s genetic makeup.[17]
Pharmacogenomics results in the following benefits:[18]
1. Development of tailor-made medicines. Using pharmacogenomics, pharmaceutical companies can create drugs based on the proteins, enzymes and RNA molecules that are associated with specific genes and diseases. These tailor-made drugs promise not only to maximize therapeutic effects but also to decrease damage to nearby healthy cells.
2. More accurate methods of determining appropriate drug dosages. Knowing a patient’s genetics will enable doctors to determine how well his/ her body can process and metabolize a medicine. This will maximize the value of the medicine and decrease the likelihood of overdose.
3.Improvements in the drug discovery and approval process. The discovery of potential therapies will be made easier using genome targets. Genes have been associated with numerous diseases and disorders. With modern biotechnology, these genes can be used as targets for the development of effective new therapies, which could significantly shorten the drug discovery process.
4. Better vaccines. Safer vaccines can be designed and produced by organisms transformed by means of genetic engineering. These vaccines will elicit the immune response without the attendant risks of infection. They will be inexpensive, stable, easy to store, and capable of being engineered to carry several strains of pathogen at once.
[edit] How does biotechnology contribute to drug production?
Modern biotechnology can be used to manufacture existing drugs more easily and cheaply. The first genetically engineered products were medicines designed to combat human diseases. To cite one example, in 1978 Genentech joined a gene for insulin and a plasmid vector and put the resulting gene into a bacterium called Escherichia coli. Insulin, widely used for the treatment of diabetes, was previously extracted from sheep and pigs. It was very expensive and often elicited unwanted allergic responses. The resulting genetically engineered bacterium enabled the production of vast quantities of human insulin at low cost.[19]
Since then modern biotechnology has made it possible to produce more easily and cheaply the human growth hormone, clotting factors for hemophiliacs, fertility drugs, erythropoietin and other drugs.[20] Most drugs today are based on about 500 molecular targets. Genomic knowledge of the genes involved in diseases, disease pathways, and drug-response sites are expected to lead to the discovery of thousands more new targets.[21]
[edit] What is genetic testing?
Genetic testing involves the direct examination of the DNA molecule itself. A scientist scans a patient’s DNA sample for mutated sequences.
There are two major types of gene tests. In the first type, a researcher may design short pieces of DNA (“probes”) whose sequences are complementary to the mutated sequences. These probes will seek their complement among the base pairs of an individual’s genome. If the mutated sequence is present in the patient’s genome, the probe will bind to it and flag the mutation. In the second type, a researcher may conduct the gene test by comparing the sequence of DNA bases in a patient’s gene to a normal version of the gene.
[edit] What are the potential uses of genetic testing?
Genetic testing can be used to:
- Diagnose a disease.
- Confirm a diagnosis.
- Provide prognostic information about the course of a disease.
- Confirm the existence of a disease in individuals.
With varying degrees of accuracy, predict the risk of future disease in healthy individuals or their progeny.
Genetic testing is now used for:
- carrier screening, or the identification of unaffected individuals who carry one copy of a gene for a disease that requires two copies for the disease to manifest
- prenatal diagnostic screening
- newborn screening
- presymptomatic testing for predicting adult-onset disorders
- presymptomatic testing for estimating the risk of developing adult-onset cancers
- confirmational diagnosis of symptomatic individuals
- forensic/identity testing
[edit] Are genetic tests now available in the market?
Some genetic tests are already available, although most of them are used in developed countries. The tests currently available can detect mutations associated with rare genetic disorders like cystic fibrosis, sickle cell anemia, and Huntington’s disease. Recently, tests have been developed to detect mutation for a handful of more complex conditions such as breast, ovarian, and colon cancers. However, gene tests may not detect every mutation associated with a particular condition because many are as yet undiscovered, and the ones they do detect may present different risks to different people and populations.[22]
[edit] What is gene therapy?
Gene therapy may be used for treating, or even curing, genetic and acquired diseases like cancer and AIDS by using normal genes to supplement or replace defective genes or to bolster a normal function such as immunity. It can be used to target somatic (i.e., body) or germ (i.e., egg and sperm) cells. In somatic gene therapy, the genome of the recipient is changed, but this change is not passed along to the next generation. In contrast, in germline gene therapy, the egg and sperm cells of the parents are changed for the purpose of passing on the changes to their offspring.
[edit] How is gene therapy done?
There are basically two ways of implementing a gene therapy treatment:
1. Ex vivo, which means “outside the body” – Cells from the patient’s blood or bone marrow are removed and grown in the laboratory. They are then exposed to the virus carrying the desired gene. The virus enters the cells, and the desired gene becomes part of the DNA of the cells. The cells are allowed to grow in the laboratory before being returned to the patient by injection into a vein.
2. In vivo, which means “inside the body” – No cells are removed from the patient’s body. Instead, vectors are used to deliver the desired gene to cells in the patient’s body.
[edit] How extensive is the use of gene therapy?
Currently, gene therapy use is limited. Somatic gene therapy is primarily at the experimental stage. Germline therapy is the subject of much discussion but it is not being actively investigated in larger animals and human beings.
As of June 2001, more than 500 clinical gene-therapy trials involving about 3,500 patients have been identified worldwide. Around 78% of these are in the United States, with Europe having 18%. These trials focus on various types of cancer, although other multigenic diseases are being studied as well. Recently, two children born with severe combined immunodeficiency disorder (“SCID”) were reported to have been cured after being given genetically engineered cells.
[edit] What are the obstacles to the widespread use of gene therapy techniques to treat patients?
Gene therapy faces many obstacles before it can become a practical approach for treating disease.[23] At least four of these obstacles are as follows:
1. Gene delivery tools. Genes are inserted into the body using gene carriers called vectors. The most common vectors now are viruses, which have evolved a way of encapsulating and delivering their genes to human cells in a pathogenic manner. Scientists manipulate the genome of the virus by removing the disease-causing genes and inserting the therapeutic genes. However, while viruses are effective, they can introduce problems like toxicity, immune and inflammatory responses, and gene control and targeting issues.
2. Limited knowledge of the functions of genes. Scientists currently know the functions of only a few genes. Hence, gene therapy can address only some genes that cause a particular disease. Worse, it is not known exactly whether genes have more than one function, which creates uncertainty as to whether replacing such genes is indeed desirable.
3. Multigene disorders and effect of environment. Most genetic disorders involve more than one gene. Moreover, most diseases involve the interaction of several genes and the environment. For example, many people with cancer not only inherit the disease gene for the disorder, but may have also failed to inherit specific tumor suppressor genes. Diet, exercise, smoking and other environmental factors may have also contributed to their disease.
4. High costs. Since gene therapy is relatively new and at an experimental stage, it is an expensive treatment to undertake. This explains why current studies are focused on illnesses commonly found in developed countries, where more people can afford to pay for treatment. It may take decades before developing countries can take advantage of this technology.
[edit] What is the Human Genome Project?
The Human Genome Project is an initiative of the U.S. Department of Energy (“DOE”) that aims to generate a high-quality reference sequence for the entire human genome and identify all the human genes.
The DOE and its predecessor agencies were assigned by the U.S. Congress to develop new energy resources and technologies and to pursue a deeper understanding of potential health and environmental risks posed by their production and use. In 1986, the DOE announced its Human Genome Initiative. Shortly thereafter, the DOE and National Institutes of Health developed a plan for a joint Human Genome Project (“HGP”), which officially began in 1990.
The HGP was originally planned to last 15 years. However, rapid technological advances and worldwide participation have accelerated the expected completion date to 2003. In June 2000, scientists announced the generation of a working draft sequence of the entire human genome. The draft provides a road map to an estimated 90% of genes on every human chromosome. Already it has enabled gene hunters to pinpoint genes associated with more than 30 disorders.[24]
[edit] What is human cloning?
Human cloning is one of the techniques of modern biotechnology. It involves the removal of the nucleus from one cell and its placement in an unfertilized egg cell whose nucleus has either been deactivated or removed.
There are two types of cloning:
1. Reproductive cloning. After a few divisions, the egg cell is placed into a uterus where it is allowed to develop into a fetus that is genetically identical to the donor of the original nucleus.
2. Therapeutic cloning.[25] The egg is placed into a Petri dish where it develops into embryonic stem cells, which have shown potentials for treating several ailments.[26]
The major differences between these two types are shown Table 1.
In February 1997, cloning became the focus of media attention when Ian Wilmut and his colleagues at the Roslin Institute announced the successful cloning of a sheep, named Dolly, from the mammary glands of an adult female. The cloning of Dolly made it apparent to many that the techniques used to produce her could someday be used to clone human beings.[27] This stirred a lot of controversy because of its ethical implications.
[edit] What are the concerns regarding the use of modern biotechnology techniques in medicine?
Several issues have been raised regarding the use of modern biotechnology in the medical sector. Many of these issues are similar to those facing any new technology that is viewed as powerful and far-reaching. Some of these issues are:[28]
1. Absence of cure. There is still a lack of effective treatment or preventive measures for many diseases and conditions now being diagnosed or predicted using gene tests. Thus, revealing information about risk of a future disease that has no existing cure presents an ethical dilemma for medical practitioners.
2. Ownership and control of genetic information. Who will own and control genetic information, or information about genes, gene products, or inherited characteristics derived from an individual or a group of people like indigenous communities? At the macro level, there is a possibility of a genetic divide, with developing countries that do not have access to medical applications of biotechnology being deprived of benefits accruing from products derived from genes obtained from their own people. Moreover, genetic information can pose a risk for minority population groups as it can lead to group stigmatization.
At the individual level, the absence of privacy and anti-discrimination legal protections in most countries can lead to discrimination in employment or insurance or other misuse of personal genetic information. This raises questions like, is genetic privacy different from medical privacy?[29]
3. Reproductive issues. These include the use of genetic information in reproductive decision-making and the possibility of genetically altering reproductive cells that may be passed on to future generations. For example, germline therapy forever changes the genetic make-up of an individual’s descendants. Thus, any error in technology or judgment may have far-reaching consequences. Ethical issues like designer babies and human cloning have also given rise to controversies between and among scientists and bioethicists, especially in the light of past abuses with eugenics.[30]
4. Clinical issues. These center on the capabilities and limitations of doctors and other health-service providers, people identified with genetic conditions, and the general public in dealing with genetic information. For instance, how should the public be prepared to make informed choices based on the results of genetic tests? How will genetic tests be evaluated and regulated for accuracy, reliability, and usefulness?
5. Effects on social institutions.Genetic tests reveal information about individuals and their families. Thus, test results can affect the dynamics within social institutions, particularly the family.
6. Conceptual and philosophical implications regarding human responsibility, free will vis-à-vis genetic determinism, and the concepts of health and disease. Do genes influence human behavior? If so, does genetic testing mean controlling human behavior? What is considered acceptable diversity? What is normal and what is a disability or disorder, and who decides these matters? Are disabilities diseases that need to be cured or prevented? Where should the line between medical treatment and enhancement be drawn? Who will have access to gene therapy?
[edit] Applications in Agriculture
[edit] What are the applications of modern biotechnology in agriculture?
There are many applications of biotechnology in agriculture.
Improved yield from crops. Using the techniques of modern biotechnology, one or two genes may be transferred to a highly developed crop variety to impart a new character that would increase its yield.30 However, while increase in crop yield is the most obvious application of modern biotechnology in agriculture, it is also the most difficult one. Current genetic engineering techniques work best for effects that are controlled by a single gene. Many of the genetic characteristics associated with yield (e.g., enhanced growth) are controlled by a large number of genes, each of which has a minimal effect on the overall yield.31 There is, therefore, much scientific work to be done in this area.
Reduced vulnerability of crops to environmental stresses. Crops containing genes that will enable them to withstand biotic and abiotic stresses may be developed. For example, drought and excessively salty soil are the two most important limiting factors in crop productivity. Biotechnologists are studying plants that can cope with these extreme conditions in the hope of finding the genes that enable them to do so and eventually transferring these genes to the more desirable crops. One of the latest developments is the identification of a plant gene, At-DBF2, from thale cress, a tiny weed that is often used for plant research because it is very easy to grow and its genetic code is well mapped out. When this gene was inserted into tomato and tobacco cells, the cells were able to withstand environmental stresses like salt, drought, cold and heat, far more than ordinary cells. If these preliminary results prove successful in larger trials, then At-DBF2 genes can help in engineering crops that can better withstand harsh environments.32
Researchers have also created transgenic rice plants that are resistant to rice yellow mottle virus (RYMV). In Africa, this virus destroys majority of the rice crops and makes the surviving plants more susceptible to fungal infections.33
Increased nutritional qualities of food crops. Proteins in foods may be modified to increase their nutritional qualities. Proteins in legumes and cereals may be transformed to provide the amino acids needed by human beings for a balanced diet.34 A good example is the work of Professors Ingo Potrykus and Peter Beyer on the so-called Goldenrice™(discussed below).
Improved taste, texture or appearance of food.Modern biotechnology can be used to slow down the process of spoilage so that fruit can ripen longer on the plant and then be transported to the consumer with a still reasonable shelf life. This improves the taste, texture and appearance of the fruit. More importantly, it could expand the market for farmers in developing countries due to the reduction in spoilage.
The first genetically modified food product was a tomato which was transformed to delay its ripening.35 Researchers in Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand, Philippines and Vietnam are currently working on delayed-ripening papaya in collaboration with the University of Nottingham and Zeneca.36
Reduced dependence on fertilizers, pesticides and other agrochemicals. Most of the current commercial applications of modern biotechnology in agriculture are on reducing the dependence of farmers on agrochemicals. For example, Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) is a soil bacterium that produces a protein with insecticidal qualities. Traditionally, a fermentation process has been used to produce an insecticidal spray from these bacteria. In this form, the Bt toxin occurs as an inactive protoxin, which requires digestion by an insect to be effective. There are several Bt toxins and each one is specific to certain target insects. Crop plants have now been engineered to contain and express the genes for Bt toxin, which they produce in its active form. When a susceptible insect ingests the transgenic crop cultivar expressing the Bt protein, it stops feeding and soon thereafter dies as a result of the Bt toxin binding to its gut wall. Bt corn is now commercially available in a number of countries to control corn borer (a lepidopteran insect), which is otherwise controlled by spraying (a more difficult process).
Crops have also been genetically engineered to acquire tolerance to broad-spectrum herbicide. The lack of cost-effective herbicides with broad-spectrum activity and no crop injury was a consistent limitation in crop weed management. Multiple applications of numerous herbicides were routinely used to control a wide range of weed species detrimental to agronomic crops. Weed management tended to rely on preemergence — that is, herbicide applications were sprayed in response to expected weed infestations rather than in response to actual weeds present. Mechanical cultivation and hand weeding were often necessary to control weeds not controlled by herbicide applications. The introduction of herbicide tolerant crops has the potential of reducing the number of herbicide active ingredients used for weed management, reducing the number of herbicide applications made during a season, and increasing yield due to improved weed management and less crop injury. Transgenic crops that express tolerance to glyphosphate, glufosinate and bromoxynil have been developed. These herbicides can now be sprayed on transgenic crops without inflicting damage on the crops while killing nearby weeds.37
From 1996 to 2001, herbicide tolerance was the most dominant trait introduced to commercially available transgenic crops, followed by insect resistance. In 2001, herbicide tolerance deployed in soybean, corn and cotton accounted for 77% of the 62.6 million hectares planted to transgenic crops; Bt crops accounted for 15%; and stacked genes for herbicide tolerance and insect resistance used in both cotton and corn accounted for 8%.38
Production of novel substances in crop plants.Modern biotechnology is increasingly being applied for novel uses other than food. For example, oilseed is at present used mainly for margarine and other food oils, but it can be modified to produce fatty acids for detergents, substitute fuels and petrochemicals.39 Banana trees and tomato plants have also been genetically engineered to produce vaccines in their fruit. If future clinical trials prove successful, the advantages of edible vaccines would be enormous, especially for developing countries. The transgenic plants may be grown locally and cheaply. Homegrown vaccines would also avoid logistical and economic problems posed by having to transport traditional preparations over long distances and keeping them cold while in transit. And since they are edible, they will not need syringes, which are not only an additional expense in the traditional vaccine preparations but also a source of infections if contaminated.40
[edit] Biotechnology medical products
Traditional pharmaceutical drugs are small chemicals molecules that treat the symptoms of a disease or illness - one molecule directed at a single target. Biopharmaceuticals are large biological molecules known as proteins and these target the underlying mechanisms and pathways of a malady; it is a relatively young industry. They can deal with targets in humans that are not accessible with traditional medicines. A patient typically is dosed with a small molecule via a tablet while a large molecule is typically injected.
Small molecules are manufactured by chemistry but large molecules are created by living cells: for example, - bacteria cells, yeast cell,animal cells.
Modern biotechnology is often associated with the use of genetically altered microorganisms such as E. coli or yeast for the production of substances like insulin or antibiotics. It can also refer to transgenic animals or transgenic plants, such as Bt corn. Genetically altered mammalian cells, such as Chinese Hamster Ovary (CHO) cells, are also widely used to manufacture pharmaceuticals. Another promising new biotechnology application is the development of plant-made pharmaceuticals.
Biotechnology is also commonly associated with landmark breakthroughs in new medical therapies to treat diabetes, hepatitis B, hepatitis C, cancers, arthritis, haemophilia, bone fractures, multiple sclerosis, cardiovascular as well as molecular diagnostic devices than can be used to define the patient population. Herceptin, is the first drug approved for use with a matching diagnostic test and is used to treat breast cancer in women whose cancer cells express the protein HER2.
[edit] Biotechnological Engineering
- Main article: Biotechnological Engineering:
Biotechnological Engineering is the branch of engineering that focuses on biotechnologies. It includes different kind of bioengineering such as biochemical engineering, bio-process engineering, biosystem engineering and so on. Because of the novelty field, the definition of a Biotechnological Engineer is ill defined. However, we can assume that it is an integrated approach of fundamental biological sciences and traditional process engineering principles.
Biotechnological Engineers are able to scale up a bio processes from the laboratory scale to the manufacture scale. Moreover, as all engineers, they are able to deal with management, economical and legal issues. Of course, since patents and regulation (FDA rules) are very important issues for biotech enterprises, biotechnological engineers have a deep knowledge related to these specialities.
The increasing number of biotech enterprise will create a need for biotechnological engineer in the years to come. Many universities throughout the world are now providing a biotechnological engineering degree (often as a chemical engineering specialization). In some rare cases, specialized and independent programs are provided. For example, the Université de Sherbrooke (located in Quebec, Canada) provides a completely independent Biotechnological Engineering degree.
[edit] History
- Main article: History of Biotechnology
Early cultures also understood the importance of using natural processes to breakdown waste products into inert forms. From very early nomadic tribes to pre-urban civilizations it was common knowledge that given enough time organic waste products would be absorbed and eventually integrated into the soil. It was not until the advent of modern microbiology and chemistry that this process was fully understood and attributed to bacteria.
The most practical use of biotechnology, which is still present today, is the cultivations of plants to produce food suitable to humans. Agriculture has been theorized to have become the dominant way of producing food since the Neolithic Revolution. The processes and methods of agriculture have been refined by other mechanical and biological sciences since its inception. Through early biotechnology farmers were able to select the best suited and high-yield crops to produce enough food to support a growing population. Other uses of biotechnology were required as crops and fields became increasingly large and difficult to maintain. Specific organisms and organism byproducts were used to fertilize, restore nitrogen, and control pests. Throughout the use of agriculture farmers have inadvertently altered the genetics of their crops through introducing them to new environments, breeding them with other plants, and by using artificial selection. In modern times some plants are genetically modified to produce specific nutritional values or to be economical.
The process of Ethanol fermentation was also one of the first forms of biotechnology. Cultures such as those in Mesopotamia, Egypt, and Iran developed the process of brewing which consisted of combining malted grains with specific yeasts to produce alcoholic beverages. In this process the carbohydrates in the grains were broken down into alcohols such as ethanol. Later other cultures produced the process of Lactic acid fermentation which allowed the fermentation and preservation of other forms of food. Fermentation was also used in this time period to produce leavened bread. Although the process of fermentation was not fully understood until Louis Pasteur’s work in 1857, it is still the first use of biotechnology to convert a food source into another form.
Combinations of plants and other organisms were used as medications in many early civilizations. Since as early as 200 BC people began to use disabled or minute amounts of infectious agents to immunize themselves against infections. These and similar processes have been refined in modern medicine and have lead to many developments such as antibiotics, vaccines, and other methods of fighting sickness.
A more recent field in biotechnology is that of genetic engineering. Genetic Engineering has opened up many new fields of biotechnology and allowed the modification of plants, animals, and even humans on a molecular level.
[edit] Global biotechnology trends
According to Burrill and Company, an industry investment bank, over $350 billion has been invested in biotech so far, and global revenues have risen from $23 billion in 2000 to more than $50 billion in 2005. The greatest growth has been in Latin America but all regions of the world have shown strong growth trends.
There has been little innovation in the traditional pharmaceutical industry over the past decade and biopharmaceuticals are now achieving the fastest rates of growth against this background, particularly in breast cancer treatment. Biopharmaceuticals typically treat sub-sets of the total population with a disease whereas traditional drugs are developed to treat the population as a whole. However, one of the great difficulties with traditional drugs are the toxic side effects the incidence of which can be unpredictable in individual patients.
Many have expressed concerns about the safety, environmental impacts, and social impacts of biotechnology. A book by Michael Mehta (2005) entitled Biotechnology Unglued: Science, Society and Social Cohesion (UBC Press) examines the two faces of biotechnology, and provides a series of case-studies on how different applications in biotechnology affect the social cohesiveness of different kinds of communities.
[edit] Biotechnology firms
There are around 4,000 biotechnology firms across the globe. Almost 50% of these are in the European Union; 30% in the US and the balance in Asia. The leading biotechnology firms are Amgen, Genentech and Serono.
[edit] Key researchers, visionaries and personalities in biotechnology sector
- Finland : Leena Palotie
- Iceland : Kari Stefansson
- Ireland : Timothy O'Brien, Dermot P Kelleher, Pearse Lyons
- U.S. : Kate Jacques, David Botstein, Craig Venter, Sydney Brenner, Eric Lander, Leroy Hood, Robert Langer, Henry I. Miller, Roger Beachy, William Rutter, George Rathmann, Herbert Boyer, Michael West, Thomas Okarma, James D. Watson
- Europe : Paul D Kemp, Paul Nurse, Jacques Monod, Francis Crick
- India : Kiran Mazumdar-Shaw (Biocon)
- Canada : Michael D Tyers, Frederick Banting, Lap-Chee Tsui, Tak Wah Mak, Lorne Babiuk
[edit] See also
- List of biotechnology articles
- Pharmaceutical company
- Biotechnology industrial park
- Compare with Biomimetics
- Agricultural Biotech
[edit] References
- ^ "The Convention on Biological Diversity (Article 2. Use of Terms)." United Nations. 1992. Retrieved on September 20, 2006.
- ^ J.J. Doyle and G.J. Persley, eds., Enabling the Safe Use of Biotechnology: Principles and Practices (Washington, D.C.: The World Bank, 1996), 5. [hereafter “Doyle”]
- ^ Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety to the Convention on Biological Diversity, finalized and opened for signature on January 29, 2000; available from http://www.biodiv.org; accessed 15 July 2002. [hereafter “Cartagena Protocol”]
- ^ National Cancer Institute, “Cancer Facts”, National Cancer Institute Online; available from http://cis.nci.nih.gov; Internet; accessed 19 August 2002.
- ^ A.J.F. Griffiths, J.H. Miller, D.T. Suzuki, R.C. Lewontin, and W.M. Gelbart, An Introduction to Genetic Analysis (New York: W.H. Freeman and Company, 1996), 2. [hereafter “Griffiths”]
- ^ The Royal Society, “Genetically Modified Plants for Food Use and Human Health – An Update, Policy Document 4/02, The Royal Society Online; available from http://www.royalsoc.ac.uk; accessed 21 July 2002. [hereafter, “Royal Society Update]
- ^ U.S. Department of Energy Human Genome Program, “Genomics and Its Impact on Medicine and Society: A 2001 Primer”, US Department of Energy Online; available from http://www.ornl.gov, accessed 25 June 2002. [hereafter “U.S. Department of Energy Human Genome Program”]
- ^ Ibid.
- ^ In the early years, the terms “genetic engineering”, “genetic manipulation”, “genetic transformation” and “transgenesis” were favored to describe the techniques of genetic modification. R.L. Paarlberg, The Politics of Precaution (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 2001), 2.
- ^ Griffiths, supra note 4, at 4. The following online dictionaries contain further definitions of terms relevant to modern biotechnology: http://www.fao.org/DOCREP/003/X3910E/ X3910E00.htm, www.hon.ch/Library/Theme/Allergy/Glosaary/allergey.html, www.sciencekomm.at/advice/dict.html.
- ^ A formal definition is offered by Mark Gerstein of Yale University: bioinformatics as “conceptualizing biology in terms of molecules and then applying informatics techniques to understand and organize the information associated with these molecules, on a large scale.” M. Gerstein, “Bioinformatics Introduction”; available from www.primate.or.kr/ bioinformatics/Course/Yale/intro.pdf; accessed on 28 February 2003.
- ^ U.S. Department of Energy Human Genome Program, supra note 6.
- ^ Commission of the European Communities (2002), Life Sciences and Biotechnology, COM(2002) 27 final, 3.
- ^ Ibid, at 4.
- ^ GMOs can also be used in biomining, or the inexpensive extraction of precious metals from low-grade ores using microbes. Plants are also now being developed to mine precious metals (e.g., Brassica, which is being developed to concentrate gold from the soil in their leaves). Science and Government, No. 1, June 2002, 3.
- ^ European Commission, at 5-6.
- ^ U.S. Department of Energy Human Genome Program, supra note 6.
- ^ Ibid.
- ^ W. Bains, Genetic Engineering For Almost Everybody: What Does It Do? What Will It Do? (London: Penguin Books, 1987), 99.
- ^ U.S. Department of State International Information Programs, “Frequently Asked Questions About Biotechnology”, USIS Online; available from http://usinfo.state.govt/ topical/global/biotech, accessed 21 March 2002. [hereafter “USIS”]. Cf. C. Feldbaum, “Some History Should Be Repeated”, 295 Science, 8 February 2002, 975.
- ^ Ibid.
- ^ Ibid
- ^ Ibid
- ^ U.S. Department of Energy Human Genome Program, supra note 6
- ^ A number of scientists have called for the use the term “nuclear transplantation”, instead of “therapeutic cloning”, to help reduce public confusion. The term “cloning” has become synonymous with “somatic cell nuclear transfer”, a procedure that can be used for a variety of purposes, only one of which involves an intention to create a clone of an organism. They believe that the term “cloning” is best associated with the ultimate outcome or objective of the research and not the mechanism or technique used to achieve that objective. They argue that the goal of creating a nearly identical genetic copy of a human being is consistent with the term “human reproductive cloning”, but the goal of creating stem cells for regenerative medicine is not consistent with the term “therapeutic cloning”. The objective of the latter is to make tissue that is genetically compatible with that of the recipient, not to create a copy of the potential tissue recipient. Hence, “therapeutic cloning” is conceptually inaccurate. B. Vogelstein, B. Alberts, and K. Shine, “Please Don’t Call It Cloning!”, Science (15 February 2002), 1237
- ^ D. Cameron, “Stop the Cloning”, Technology Review, 23 May 2002’. Also available from http://www.techreview.com. [hereafter “Cameron”]
- ^ M.C. Nussbaum and C.R. Sunstein, Clones And Clones: Facts And Fantasies About Human Cloning (New York: W.W. Norton & Co., 1998), 11. However, there is wide disagreement within scientific circles whether human cloning can be successfully carried out. For instance, Dr. Rudolf Jaenisch of Whitehead Institute for Biomedical Research believes that reproductive cloning shortcuts basic biological processes, thus making normal offspring impossible to produce. In normal fertilization, the egg and sperm go through a long process of maturation. Cloning shortcuts this process by trying to reprogram the nucleus of one whole genome in minutes or hours. This results in gross physical malformations to subtle neurological disturbances. Cameron, supra note 30
- ^ Ibid
- ^ The National Action Plan on Breast Cancer and U.S. National Institutes of Health-Department of Energy Working Group on the Ethical, Legal and Social Implications (ELSI) have issued several recommendations to prevent workplace and insurance discrimination. The highlights of these recommendations, which may be taken into account in developing legislation to prevent genetic discrimination, may be found at http://www.ornl.gov/hgmis/ elsi/legislat.html.
- ^ Eugenics is the study of methods of improving genetic qualities through selective breeding
[edit] Further reading
- Oliver, Richard W. The Coming Biotech Age. ISBN 0-07-135020-9.
[edit] External links
- From the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO):
- Zaid, A; H.G. Hughes, E. Porceddu, F. Nicholas (2001). Glossary of Biotechnology for Food and Agriculture - A Revised and Augmented Edition of the Glossary of Biotechnology and Genetic Engineering. Available in English, French, Spanish and Arabic. Rome: FAO. ISBN 92-5-104683-2.
- A report on Agricultural Biotechnology focusing on the impacts of "Green" Biotechnology with a special emphasis on economic aspects
- Agricultural Biotechnology - A discussion on some impacts mentioned in the above FAO report by GreenFacts
- StandardGlossary.com: Biotechnology A professional Biotechnology Glossary for beginners to learn Biotechnology
- Biotech Dictionary - Concise vocabulary of most common terms in biotechnology
