User:Bduke/Entropy

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This article is placed here to allow me to develop what I think the article should look like. Please leave it alone until I announce it on Talk:Entropy. The version is the 04:45, 27 November 2006 version by User:Dave souza. --Bduke 08:11, 27 November 2006 (UTC)

See also: Entropy (disambiguation)

Ice melting - classic example of entropy increase described in 1862 by Rudolf Clausius as an increase in the disgregation of the molecules of the body of ice.
Ice melting - classic example of entropy increase[1] described in 1862 by Rudolf Clausius as an increase in the disgregation of the molecules of the body of ice.[2]

The concept of entropy in thermodynamics is central to the second law of thermodynamics, which deals with physical processes and whether they occur spontaneously. Spontaneous changes occur with an increase in entropy. In contrast the first law of thermodynamics deals with the concept of energy, which is conserved. Entropy change has often been defined as a change to a more disordered state at a microscopic level. In recent years, entropy has been interpreted in terms of the "dispersal" of energy. Entropy is an extensive state function that accounts for the effects of irreversibility in thermodynamic systems.

Quantitatively, entropy, symbolized by S, is defined by the differential quantity dS = δQ / T, where δQ is the amount of heat absorbed in a reversible process in which the system goes from one state to another, and T is the absolute temperature.[3] The SI unit of entropy is thus "joule per kelvin" (J•K−1).

When a system's energy is defined as the sum of its "useful" energy, (e.g. that used to push a piston), and its "useless energy", i.e. that energy which cannot be used for external work, then entropy may be (most concretely) visualized as the "scrap" or "useless" energy whose energetic prevalance over the total energy of a system is directly proportional to the absolute temperature of the considered system, as is the case with the Gibbs free energy or Helmholtz free energy relations.

In terms of statistical mechanics, the entropy describes the number of the possible microscopic configurations of the system. The statistical definition of entropy is generally thought to be the more fundamental definition, from which all other important properties of entropy follow. Although the concept of entropy was originally a thermodynamic construct, it has been adapted in other fields of study, including information theory, psychodynamics, thermoeconomics, and evolution.[4][5][6]

Contents

[edit] History

Rudolf Clausius - originator of the concept of "entropy" S
Rudolf Clausius - originator of the concept of "entropy" S
Main article: History of entropy

The short history of entropy begins with the work of mathematician Lazare Carnot who in his 1803 work Fundamental Principles of Equilibrium and Movement postulated that in any machine the accelerations and shocks of the moving parts all represent losses of moment of activity. In other words, in any natural process there exists an inherent tendency towards the dissipation of useful energy. Building on this work, in 1824 Lazare's son Sadi Carnot published Reflections on the Motive Power of Fire in which he set forth the view that in all heat-engines whenever "caloric", or what is now known as heat, falls through a temperature difference, that work or motive power can be produced from the actions of the "fall of caloric" between a hot and cold body. This was an early insight into the second law of thermodynamics.

Carnot based his views of heat partially on the early 18th century "Newtonian hypothesis" that both heat and light were types of indestructible forms of matter, which are attracted and repelled by other matter, and partially on recent 1789 views of Count Rumford who showed that heat could be created by friction as when cannons bored.[7] Accordingly, Carnot reasoned that if the body of the working substance, such as a body of steam, is brought back to its original state (temperature and pressure) at the end of a complete engine cycle, that "no change occurs in the condition of the working body." This latter comment was amended in his foot notes, and it was this comment that led to the development of entropy.

In the 1850s and 60s, German physicist Rudolf Clausius gravely objected to this latter supposition, i.e. that no change occurs in the working body, and gave this "change" a mathematical interpretation by questioning the nature of the inherent loss of usable heat when work is done, e.g., heat produced by friction.[8] This was in contrast to earlier views, based on the theories of Isaac Newton, that heat was an indestructible particle that had mass. Later, scientists such as Ludwig Boltzmann, Willard Gibbs, and James Clerk Maxwell gave entropy a statistical basis. Carathéodory linked entropy with a mathematical definition of irreversibility, in terms of trajectories and integrability.

[edit] Definitions and descriptions

In science, the term "entropy" is generally interpreted in three distinct, but semi-related, ways, i.e. from macroscopic viewpoint (classical thermodynamics), a microscopic viewpoint (statistical thermodynamics), and an information viewpoint (information theory). The thermodynamic interpretations, generally, differ substantially from the information theory interpretation and are only related in namesake, although there is not complete agreement on this issue.

[edit] Macroscopic viewpoint (thermodynamics)

Conjugate variables
of thermodynamics
Pressure Volume
(Stress) (Strain)
Temperature Entropy
Chem. potential Particle no.
Main article: Entropy (thermodynamic views)

In a thermodynamic system, a "universe" consisting of "surroundings" and "systems" and made up of quantities of matter, its pressure differences, density differences, and temperature differences all tend to equalize over time. In the ice melting example, the difference in temperature between a warm room (the surroundings) and cold glass of ice and water (the system and not part of the room), begins to be equalized as portions of the heat energy from the warm surroundings become spread out to the cooler system of ice and water.

Thermodynamic System
Thermodynamic System

Over time the temperature of the glass and its contents and the temperature of the room become equal. The entropy of the room has decreased and some of its energy has been dispersed to the ice and water. However, as calculated in the example, the entropy of the system of ice and water has increased more than the entropy of the surrounding room has decreased. In an isolated system such as the room and ice water taken together, the dispersal of energy from warmer to cooler always results in a net increase in entropy. Thus, when the 'universe' of the room and ice water system has reached a temperature equilibrium, the entropy change from the initial state is at a maximum. The entropy of the thermodynamic system is a measure of how far the equalization has progressed.

A special case of entropy increase, the entropy of mixing, occurs when two or more different substances are mixed. If the substances are at the same temperature and pressure, there will be no net exchange of heat or work - the entropy increase will be entirely due to the mixing of the different substances.[9]

From a macroscopic perspective, in classical thermodynamics the entropy is interpreted simply as a state function of a thermodynamic system: that is, a property depending only on the current state of the system, independent of how that state came to be achieved. The state function has the important property that, when multiplied by a reference temperature, it can be understood as a measure of the amount of energy in a physical system that cannot be used to do thermodynamic work; i.e., work mediated by thermal energy. More precisely, in any process where the system gives up energy ΔE, and its entropy falls by ΔS, a quantity at least TR ΔS of that energy must be given up to the system's surroundings as unusable heat (TR is the temperature of the system's external surroundings). Otherwise the process will not go forward.

[edit] Microscopic viewpoint (statistical mechanics)

Main article: Entropy (statistical views)

The microscopic view attempts to explain the mascroscopic properties in terms of the behaviour of the atoms and molecules in the sample. From a microscopic perspective, in statistical thermodynamics the entropy is a measure of the number of microscopic configurations that are capable of yielding the observed macroscopic description of the thermodynamic system:

S = k_B \ln \Omega \!

where Ω is the number of microscopic configurations, and kB is Boltzmann's constant. In Boltzmann's 1896 Lectures on Gas Theory, he showed that this expression gives a measure of entropy for systems of atoms and molecules in the gas phase, thus providing a measure for the entropy of classical thermodynamics.

In 1877, thermodynamicist Ludwig Boltzmann visualized a probabilistic way to measure the entropy of an ensemble of ideal gas particles, in which he defined entropy to be proportional to the logarithm of the number of microstates such a gas could occupy. Henceforth, the essential problem in statistical thermodynamics, i.e. according to Erwin Schrödinger, has been to determine the distribution of a given amount of energy E over N identical systems.

[edit] Entropy in chemical thermodynamics

Main article: Chemical thermodynamics

Thermodynamic entropy is central in chemical thermodynamics, enabling changes to be quantified and the outcome of reactions predicted. The second law of thermodynamics states that the total entropy increases during all spontaneous chemical and physical processes. Spontaneity in chemistry means “by itself, or without any outside influence”, and has nothing to do with reaction rate. Entropy is essential in predicting the extent of complex chemical reactions, i.e. whether a process will go as written or proceed in the opposite direction. For such applications, ΔS must be incorporated in an expression that includes both the system and its surroundings, Δ Suniverse = ΔSsurroundings + Δ S system. This expression becomes, via some steps, for reactions at constant pressure, the Gibbs free energy equation for reactants and products in the system: Δ G [the Gibbs free energy change of the system] = Δ H [the enthalpy change] – T Δ S [the entropy change].[10]

[edit] The second law

Main article: Second law of thermodynamics

An important law of physics, the second law of thermodynamics, states that the total entropy of any isolated thermodynamic system tends to increase over time, approaching a maximum value; and so, by implication, the entropy of the universe (i.e. the system and its surroundings), assumed as an isolated system, tends to increase. Two important consequences are that heat cannot of itself pass from a colder to a hotter body: i.e., it is impossible to transfer heat from a cold to a hot reservoir without at the same time converting a certain amount of work to heat. It is also impossible for any device that can operate on a cycle to receive heat from a single reservoir and produce a net amount of work; it can only get useful work out of the heat if heat is at the same time transferred from a hot to a cold reservoir.

[edit] Entropy balance equation for open systems

(Move everything that was here somewhere else - too complex and mathematical)

[edit] Standard textbook definitions

  • Entropy – energy broken down in irretrievable heat.[11]
  • – Boltzmann's constant times the logarithm of a multiplicity; where the multiplicity of a macrostate is the number of microstates that correspond to the macrostate.[12]
  • – the number of ways of arranging things in a system (times the Boltzmann's constant).[13]
  • – a non-conserved thermodynamic state function, measured in terms of the number of microstates a system can assume, which corresponds to a degradation in usable energy.[14]
  • – a direct measure of the randomness of a system.[15]
  • – a measure of energy dispersal at a specific temperature.[16]
  • – a measure of the partial loss of the ability of a system to perform work due to the effects of irreversibility.[17]
  • – an index of the tendency of a system towards spontaneous change.[18]
  • – a measure of the unavailability of a system’s energy to do work; also a measure of disorder; the higher the entropy the greater the disorder.[19]
  • – a parameter representing the state of disorder of a system at the atomic, ionic, or molecular level.[20]
  • – a measure of disorder in the universe or of the availability of the energy in a system to do work.[21]

[edit] Approaches to understanding entropy

[edit] Order and disorder

Main article: Entropy (order and disorder)

Entropy, historically, has often been associated with the amount of order, disorder, and or chaos in a thermodynamic system. The traditional definition of entropy is that it refers to changes in the status quo of the system and is a measure of "molecular disorder" and the amount of wasted energy in a dynamical energy transformation from one state or form to another.[22] In this direction, a number of authors, in recent years, have derived exact entropy formulas to account for and measure disorder and order in atomic and molecular assemblies.[23][6][24][25] One of the simpler entropy order/disorder formulas is that derived in 1984 by thermodynamic physicist Peter Landsberg, which is based on a combination of thermodynamics and information theory arguments. Landsberg argues that when constraints operate on a system, such that it is prevented from entering one or more of its possible or permitted states, as contrasted with its forbidden states, the measure of the total amount of “disorder” in the system is given by the following expression:[24][25]

Disorder=C_D/C_I\,

Similarly, the total amount of "order" in the system is given by:

Order=1-C_O/C_I\,

In which CD is the "disorder" capacity of the system, which is the entropy of the parts contained in the permitted ensemble, CI is the "information" capacity of the system, an expression similar to Shannon's channel capacity, and CO is the "order" capacity of the system.[6]

[edit] Energy dispersal

Main article: Entropy (energy dispersal)

The concept of entropy can be described qualitatively as a measure of energy dispersal at a specific temperature.[26] Similar terms have been in use from early in the history of classical thermodynamics, and with the development of statistical thermodynamics and quantum theory, entropy changes have been described in terms of the mixing or "spreading" of the total energy of each constituent of a system over its particular quantized energy levels.

Ambiguities in the terms disorder and chaos, which usually have meanings directly opposed to equilibrium, contribute to widespread confusion and hamper comprehension of entropy for most students. As the second law of thermodynamics shows, in an isolated system internal portions at different temperatures will tend to adjust to a single uniform temperature and thus produce equilibrium.[27] A recently developed educational approach avoids ambiguous terms and describes such spreading out of energy as dispersal, which leads to loss of the differentials required for work even though the total energy remains constant in accordance with the first law of thermodynamics.[28] Physical chemist Peter Atkins, for example, who previously wrote of dispersal leading to a disordered state, now writes that "spontaneous changes are always accompanied by a dispersal of energy", and has discarded 'disorder' as a description.[29][30]

[edit] Entropy and Information theory

Main articles: Information entropy and Entropy in thermodynamics and information theory
See also History of information entropy

In information theory, entropy is the measure of the amount of information that is missing before reception.[31] This type of entropy is called “information entropy” while thermodynamic entropy is an energetic measure of irreversibility. Information entropy can also be defined as measure of the amount of information in a message.[32]

The question of the link between information entropy and thermodynamic entropy is a hotly debated topic. Many authors argue that there is a link between the two, [33][34] [35] while others will argue that they have absolutely nothing to do with each other.[36]

[edit] Ice melting example

Main article: disgregation

The illustration for this article is a classic example in which entropy increases in a small 'universe', a thermodynamic system consisting of the 'surroundings' (the warm room) and 'system' (glass, ice, cold water). In this universe, some heat energy δQ from the warmer room surroundings (at 298 K or 25 C) will spread out to the cooler system of ice and water at its constant temperature T of 273 K (0 C), the melting temperature of ice. The entropy of the system will change by the amount dS = δQ/T, in this example δQ/273 K. (The heat δQ for this process is the energy required to change water from the solid state to the liquid state, and is called the enthalpy of fusion, i.e. the ΔH for ice fusion.) The entropy of the surroundings will change by an amount dS = -δQ/298 K. So in this example, the entropy of the system increases, whereas the entropy of the surroundings decreases.

It is important to realize that the decrease in the entropy of the surrounding room is less than the increase in the entropy of the ice and water: the room temperature of 298 K is larger than 273 K and therefore the ratio, (entropy change), of δQ/298 K for the surroundings is smaller than the ratio (entropy change), of δQ/273 K for the ice+water system. To find the entropy change of our 'universe', we add up the entropy changes for its constituents: the surrounding room, and the ice+water. The total entropy change is positive; this is always true in spontaneous events in a thermodynamic system and it shows the predictive importance of entropy: the final net entropy after such an event is always greater than was the initial entropy.

As the temperature of the cool water rises to that of the room and the room further cools imperceptibly, the sum of the δQ/T over the continuous range, at many increments, in the initially cool to finally warm water can be found by calculus. The entire miniature "universe", i.e. this thermodynamic system, has increased in entropy. Energy has spontaneously become more dispersed and spread out in that "universe" than when the glass of ice water was introduced and became a "system" within it.

[edit] Topics in entropy

[edit] Entropy and life

Main article: Entropy and life

For over a century and a half, beginning with Clausius' 1863 memoir "On the Concentration of Rays of Heat and Light, and on the Limits of its Action", much writing and research has been devoted to the relationship between thermodynamic entropy and the evolution of life. The argument that that life feeds on negative entropy or negentropy as put forth in the 1944 book What is Life? by physicist Erwin Schrödinger served as a further stimulus to this research. Recent writings have utilized the concept of Gibbs free energy to elaborate on this issue. In other cases, some creationists who have shown a thorough misunderstanding of entropy, have argued that entropy rules out evolution.[37]

In the popular textbook 1982 textbook Principles of Biochemistry by noted American biochemist Albert Lehninger, for example, it is argued that the order produced within cells as they grow and divide is more than compensated for by the disorder they create in their surroundings in the course of growth and division. In short, according to Lehninger, "living organisms preserve their internal order by taking from their surroundings free energy, in the form of nutrients or sunlight, and returning to their surroundings an equal amount of energy as heat and entropy."[38]

[edit] The arrow of time

Main article: Entropy (arrow of time)

Entropy is the only quantity in the physical sciences that "picks" a particular direction for time, sometimes called an arrow of time. As we go "forward" in time, the Second Law of Thermodynamics tells us that the entropy of an isolated system can only increase or remain the same; it cannot decrease. Hence, from one perspective, entropy measurement is thought of as a kind of clock. [citation needed]

[edit] Entropy and cosmology

Main article: Black hole thermodynamics

We have previously mentioned that a finite universe may be considered an isolated system. As such, it may be subject to the Second Law of Thermodynamics, so that its total entropy is constantly increasing. It has been speculated that the universe is fated to a heat death in which all the energy ends up as a homogeneous distribution of thermal energy, so that no more work can be extracted from any source.

If the universe can be considered to have generally increasing entropy, then - as Roger Penrose has pointed out - gravity plays an important role in the increase because gravity causes dispersed matter to accumulate into stars, which collapse eventually into black holes. Jacob Bekenstein and Stephen Hawking have shown that black holes have the maximum possible entropy of any object of equal size. This makes them likely end points of all entropy-increasing processes, if they are totally effective matter and energy traps. Hawking has, however, recently changed his stance on this aspect.

The role of entropy in cosmology remains a controversial subject. Recent work has cast extensive doubt on the heat death hypothesis and the applicability of any simple thermodynamic model to the universe in general. Although entropy does increase in the model of an expanding universe, the maximum possible entropy rises much more rapidly and leads to an "entropy gap", thus pushing the system further away from equilibrium with each time increment. Other complicating factors, such as the energy density of the vacuum and macroscopic quantum effects, are difficult to reconcile with thermodynamical models, making any predictions of large-scale thermodynamics extremely difficult. [citation needed]

[edit] Various definitions and links

[edit] Miscellaneous definitions

[edit] Evolution related definitions

  • Negentropy - a shorthand colloquial phrase for negative entropy.[41]
  • Ectropy - a measure of the tendency of a dynamical system to do useful work and grow more organized.[22]
  • Syntropy - a tendency towards order and symmetrical combinations and designs of ever more advantageous and orderly patterns.
  • Extropy – a metaphorical term defining the extent of a living or organizational system's intelligence, functional order, vitality, energy, life, experience, and capacity and drive for improvement and growth.
  • Ecological entropy - a measure of biodiversity in the study of biological ecology.

[edit] Other mathematical definitions

[edit] Sociological definitions

The concept of entropy has also entered the domain of sociology, generally as a metaphor for chaos, disorder or dissipation of energy, rather than as a direct measure of thermodynamic or information entropy:

  • Entropology – the study or discussion of entropy or the name sometimes given to thermodynamics without differential equations.[3][42]
  • Psychological entropy - the distribution of energy in the psyche, which tends to seek equilibrium or balance among all the structures of the psyche.[43]
  • Economic entropy – a quantitative measure of the irrevocable dissipation and degradation of natural materials and available energy with respect to economic activity.[44][45]
  • Social entropy – a measure of social system structure, having both theoretical and statistical interpretations, i.e. society (macrosocietal variables) measured in terms of how the individual functions in society (microsocietal variables); also related to social equilibrium.[46]
  • Corporate entropy - energy waste as red tape and business team inefficiency, i.e. energy lost to waste.[47]

[edit] Quotes & humor

“ Nobody knows what entropy really is, so in a debate you will always have the advantage. ”
“ The future belongs to those who can manipulate entropy; those who understand but energy will be only accountants. ”

[edit] See also

[edit] References

  1. ^ Note: In certain types of advanced system configurations, such as at the critical point of water or when salt is added to an ice-water mixture, entropy can either increase or decrease depending on system parameters, such as temperature and pressure. For example, if the spontaneous crystallization of a supercooled liquid takes place under adiabatic conditions the entropy of the resulting crystal will be greater than that of the supercooled liquid (Denbigh, K. (1981). The Principles of Chemical Equilibrium, 4th Ed.). In general, however, when ice melts, the entropy of the two adjoined systems, i.e. the adjacent hot and cold bodies, when thought of as one "universe", increases. Here are some further tutorials: Entropy and Ice-melting - Michigan State University (course page); Ice-melting – JCE example; Ice-melting and Entropy Change – example; Ice-melting and Entropy Change – discussions
  2. ^ Clausius, Rudolf (1862). "On the Application of the Theorem of the Equivalence of Transformations to Interior Work." Communicated to the Naturforschende Gesellschaft of Zurich, Jan. 27th, 1862; published in the Viertaljahrschrift of this Society, vol. vii. P. 48; in Poggendorff’s Annalen, May 1862, vol. cxvi. p. 73; in the Philosophical Magazine, S. 4. vol. xxiv. pp. 81, 201; and in the Journal des Mathematiques of Paris, S. 2. vol. vii. P. 209.
  3. ^ a b Perrot, Pierre (1998). A to Z of Thermodynamics. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-856552-6. 
  4. ^ Avery, John (2003). Information Theory and Evolution. World Scientific. ISBN 981-238-399-9. 
  5. ^ Yockey, Hubert, P. (2005). Information Theory, Evolution, and the Origin of Life.. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-80293-8. 
  6. ^ a b c Brooks, Daniel, R.; Wiley, E.O. (1988). Entropy as Evolution – Towards a Unified Theory of Biology. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-07574-5. 
  7. ^ McCulloch, Richard, S. (1876). Treatise on the Mechanical Theory of Heat and its Applications to the Steam-Engine, etc.. D. Van Nostrand. 
  8. ^ Clausius, Rudolf (1850). On the Motive Power of Heat, and on the Laws which can be deduced from it for the Theory of Heat. Poggendorff's Annalen der Physick, LXXIX (Dover Reprint). ISBN 0-486-59065-8. 
  9. ^ See, e.g., Notes for a “Conversation About Entropy” for a brief discussion of both thermodynamic and "configurational" ("positional") entropy in chemistry.
  10. ^
  11. ^ de Rosnay, Joel (1979). The Macroscope – a New World View (written by an M.I.T.-trained biochemist). Harper & Row, Publishers. ISBN 0-06-011029-5. 
  12. ^ Baierlein, Ralph (2003). Thermal Physics. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-65838-1. 
  13. ^ Schroeder, Daniel, R. (2000). Thermal Physics. New York: Addison Wesley Longman. ISBN 0-201-38027-7. 
  14. ^ McGraw-Hill Concise Encyclopedia of Chemistry, 2004
  15. ^ Chang, Raymond (1998). Chemistry, 6th Ed.. New York: McGraw Hill. ISBN 0-07-115221-0. 
  16. ^ Atkins, Peter; Julio De Paula (2006). Physical Chemistry , 8th edition. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-870072-5. 
  17. ^ Cutnell, John, D.; Johnson, Kenneth, J. (1998). Physics, 4th edition. John Wiley and Sons, Inc.. ISBN 0-471-19113-2. 
  18. ^ Haynie, Donald, T. (2001). Biological Thermodynamics. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-79165-0. 
  19. ^ Oxford Dictionary of Science, 2005
  20. ^ Barnes & Noble's Essential Dictionary of Science, 2004
  21. ^ Gribbin's Encyclopedia of Particle Physics, 2000
  22. ^ a b c Haddad, Wassim M.; Chellaboina, VijaySekhar; Nersesov, Sergey G. (2005). Thermodynamics - A Dynamical Systems Approach. Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-12327-6. 
  23. ^ Callen, Herbert, B (2001). Thermodynamics and an Introduction to Thermostatistics, 2nd Ed.. John Wiley and Sons. ISBN 0-471-86256-8. 
  24. ^ a b Landsberg, P.T. (1984). “Is Equilibrium always an Entropy Maximum?” J. Stat. Physics 35: 159-69.
  25. ^ a b Landsberg, P.T. (1984). “Can Entropy and “Order” Increase Together?” Physics Letters 102A:171-173
  26. ^ Frank L. Lambert, A Student’s Approach to the Second Law and Entropy
  27. ^
  28. ^ Frank L. Lambert, JCE 2002 (79) 187 [Feb Disorder--A Cracked Crutch for Supporting Entropy Discussions]
  29. ^ Atkins, Peter (1984). The Second Law. Scientific American Library. ISBN 0-7167-5004-X. 
  30. ^
  31. ^ Balian, Roger (2003). Entropy – Protean Concept (PDF). Poincare Seminar 2: 119-45.
  32. ^ Oxford English Dictionary.
  33. ^ Brillouin, Leon (1956). Science and Information Theory. name. ISBN 0-486-43918-6. 
  34. ^ Georgescu-Roegen, Nicholas (1971). The Entropy Law and the Economic Process. Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-25781-2. 
  35. ^ Chen, Jing (2005). The Physical Foundation of Economics - an Analytical Thermodynamic Theory. World Scientific. ISBN 981-256-323-7. 
  36. ^ Lin, Shu-Kun. (1999). “Diversity and Entropy.” Entropy (Journal), 1[1], 1-3.
  37. ^ Entropy, Disorder and Life
  38. ^ Lehninger, Albert (1993). Principles of Biochemistry, 2nd Ed.. Worth Publishers. ISBN 0-87901-711-2. 
  39. ^ von Baeyer, Christian, H. (2003). Information - the New Language of Science. Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-01387-5. 
  40. ^ Serway, Raymond, A. (1992). Physics for Scientists and Engineers. Saunders Golden Subburst Series. ISBN 0-03-096026-6. 
  41. ^ Schrödinger, Erwin (1944). What is Life - the Physical Aspect of the Living Cell. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-42708-8. 
  42. ^ Example: "Entropology, not anthropology, should be the word for the discipline that devotes itself to the study of the process of disintegration in its most evolved forms." (In A World on Wane, London, 1961, pg. 397; translated by John Russell of Tristes Tropiques by Claude Levi-Strauss.)
  43. ^ Hall, Calvin S.; Nordby, Vernon J. (1999). A Primer of Jungian Psychology. New York: Meridian. ISBN 0-452-01186-8. 
  44. ^ Georgescu-Roegen, Nicholas (1971). The Entropy Law and the Economic Process. Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-25781-2. 
  45. ^ Burley, Peter; Foster, John (1994). Economics and Thermodynamics – New Perspectives on Economic Analysis. Kluwer Academic Publishers. ISBN 0-7923-9446-1. 
  46. ^ Bailey, Kenneth, D. (1990). Social Entropy Theory. State University of New York Press. ISBN 0-7914-0056-5. 
  47. ^ DeMarco, Tom; Lister, Timothy (1999). Peopleware - Productive Projects and Teams, 2nd. Ed.. Dorset House Publishing Co.. ISBN 0-932633-43-9. 
  48. ^ M. Tribus, E.C. McIrvine, “Energy and information”, Scientific American, 224 (September 1971).
  49. ^ Avery, John (2003). Information Theory and Evolution. World Scientific. ISBN 981-238-400-6. 
  50. ^ Engineering Thermodynamics Course Outline - that uses Keffer's quote

[edit] Further reading

  1. Fermi, Enrico (1937). Thermodynamics. Prentice Hall. ISBN 0-486-60361-X. 
  2. Kroemer, Herbert; Charles Kittel (1980). Thermal Physics, 2nd Ed., W. H. Freeman Company. ISBN 0-7167-1088-9. 
  3. Penrose, Roger (2005). The Road to Reality : A Complete Guide to the Laws of the Universe. ISBN 0-679-45443-8. 
  4. Reif, F. (1965). Fundamentals of statistical and thermal physics. McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0-07-051800-9. 
  5. Goldstein, Martin; Inge, F (1993). The Refrigerator and the Universe. Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-75325-9. 

[edit] External links

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