Talk:Anti-Semitism/Draft
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Anti-Semitism is prejudice against, or hostility toward, Jewish people. It ranges from ad hoc antagonism towards Jews on an individual level to the institutionalized prejudice once prevalent in European societies, of which the highly explicit ideology of Hitler's National Socialism was perhaps the most extreme form.
Many partisans bitterly dispute whether the various forms of hostility are justified or not, and there are numerous disputes over what sort of adverse speech, attitudes or actions ought to be labelled "anti-Semitic".
This article will describe attitudes and action that are often referred to as anti-Semitism, ranging from mild individual criticism on up through theological disagreements; pogroms; the so-called blood libel; Hitler, Nazis and the Holocaust; opposition to Zionism and modern attitudes toward Israel.
[edit] Etymology and usage
The political writer Wilhelm Marr is credited with coining the German word Antisemitismus in 1873, at a time when racial science was fashionable in Germany but religious prejudice was not. This term was offered as an alternative to the older German word Judenhass, meaning Jew-hating, but did nothing to lessen Marr's reputation as an anti-Semite. (See also the coinage of the term Palestinian by Germans to refer to the nation or people known as Jews, as distinct from the religion of Judaism.)
So far as can be ascertained, the word was first printed in 1881. In that year Marr published "Zwanglose Antisemitische Hefte," and Wilhelm Scherer used the term "Antisemiten" in the "Neue Freie Presse" of January. The related word semitism was coined around 1885.
Originally, the term referred to prejudice towards Jews alone, and not to people who speak semitic languages as a whole (e.g., Arabs). For nearly a century this has been the only use of this word. In recent decades, however, some people have argued that the term anti-Semitism should be extended to include prejudice against Arabs, since Arabic is a semitic language but this usage has not been widely adopted. The unhyphenated term antisemitism is favored by some to represent anti-Jewish beliefs or behavior.
N.B.: The terms Semitic and "anti-Semitic" are not antonyms, despite the use of the prefix "anti."
[edit] A wider meaning
Anti-semitism is often defined as ranging from ad hoc antagonism towards Jews on an individual level to the institutionalized prejudice once prevalent in European societies, of which the highly explicit ideology of Hitler's National Socialism was perhaps the most extreme form.
Some Jews traditionally see the world as a dichotomy: non-Jews either show sympathy and are philo-Semites or they show antipathy and are Anti-Semites. This broader definition sometimes causes some confusion as it is only a political label and has no connotations of passing moral judgement.
[edit] Background of anti-Semitism
The concept of anti-Semitism as a sociopolitical theory belongs to the 20th century. However, political and cultural anti-Semitism can be traced back to the ancient world and anticipates the rise of anti-Semitism in the 19th century.
[edit] Anti-Semitism and religious doctrine
Judaic traditions extend at least a thousand years BCE (before the common era), and are the historical predecessor for the religions of Christianity and Islam, both of whom hold some Judaic traditions and texts as sacred, though differ in aspects that are central to each distinct branch of religion.
Hence Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, each took different course in terms of beliefs, as well as traditional customs; each creating a separate and distinct culture, from the parent Judaism. Those who held to traditional Judaic belief were considered "deniers" of the newer beliefs and traditions, in much the same way that every religion considers people of other religions to be denying the truth.
[edit] Anti-Judaism in the New Testament
Christian theological anti-Semitism was stimulated by the New Testament's replacement theology, or supersessionism, which taught that with the coming of Jesus a new covenant has rendered obsolete and has superseded the religion of Judaism. It was believed that "the wicked Jews", as a people, were responsible for the death of Jesus. A number of Christian preachers, particularly in the Middle Ages and Renaissance, additionally taught that religious Jews choose to follow a faith that they actually know is false out of a desire to offend God.
The Catholic Church is alleged by many anti-Catholics to have followed the "theology" until 1965. While there were many Catholics who were anti-semitic, this attitude toward the Jews was repeatedly condemned by the official Magisterium of the Church, was never a doctrine of the Catholic Church in which all the faithful were bound to believe. The Catechism of the Council of Trent (XVI century), states:
- We must regard as guilty all those who continue to relapse into their sins. Since our sins made the Lord Christ suffer the torment of the cross, those who plunge themselves into disorders and crimes crucify the Son of God anew in their hearts (for he is in them) and hold him up to contempt. And it can be seen that our crime in this case is greater in us (Christians) than in the Jews. As for them, according to the witness of the Apostle, "None of the rulers of this age understood this; for if they had, they would not have crucified the Lord of glory." We, however, profess to know him. And when we deny him by our deeds, we in some way seem to lay violent hands on him. (Roman Catechism I, 5, 11)
Rather, as part of Vatican II, which was a pastoral council and not a dogmatic council (it taught no new doctrine), the official condemnations of the deicide charge were reiterated. A small number of Protestant sects still teach it, however.
Some examples of anti-Semitism in the New Testament are:
- Jesus said to them [i.e., the "Jews"], "You are of your father the devil, and your will is to do your father's desires. He was a murderer from the beginning, and has nothing to do with the truth, because there is no truth in him. . . . He who is of God hears the words of God; the reason why you do not hear them is you are not of God." (John 8:44-47)
- You stiff-necked people, uncircumcised in heart and ears, you always resist the Holy Spirit. As your fathers did, so do you. Which of the prophets did not your fathers persecute? And they killed those who announced beforehand the coming of the Righteous One, whom you have now betrayed and murdered, you who received the law as delivered by angels and did not keep it. (Acts 13:46-48)
- Behold, I will make those of the synagogue of Satan who say that they are Jews and are not, but lie -- behold, I will make them come and bow down before your feet, and learn that I have loved you. (Rev. 3:9).
[edit] Anti-Semitism in the Quran
[edit] Anti-Semitism in the ancient world
Prejudice against Jews can be traced back to the Graeco-Roman period and the rise of Hellenistic culture. Most Jews rejected efforts to assimilate themselves into the dominant Greek (and later Roman) culture, and their religious practices, which conflicted with established norms, were perceived as being backward and primitive. Gaius Cornelius Tacitus, for example, writes disparagingly of many real and imagined practices of the Jews, while there are numerous accounts of circumcision being described as barbarous.
Throughout the Diaspora, Jews tended to live in separate communities, in which they could practice their religion. This led to charges of elitism, as appear in the writings of Cicero. As an ethnic minority, Jews were also dependent on the goodwill of the authorities, though this was considered irksome to the indigenous population, which regarded any vestiges of autonomy among the local Jewish communities as reminders of their subject status to a foreign empire. Nevertheless, this did not always mean that opposition to Jewish involvement in local affairs was anti-Semitic. In 411 BCE, an Egyptian mob destroyed the Jewish temple at Elephantine in Egypt, but many historians argue that this was provoked by anti-Persian sentiment, rather than by anti-Semitism per se -- the Jews, who were protected by the imperial power, were perceived as being its representatives.
The enormous and influential Jewish community in the ancient Egyptian port city of Alexandria saw manifestations of an unusual brand of anti-Semitism in which the local pagan populace rejected the biblical narrative of the Exodus as being anti-Egyptian. In response, a number of works were produced to provide an "Egyptian version" of what "really happened": the Jews were a group of sickly lepers that was expelled from Egypt. This was also used to account for Jewish practices -- they were so sickly that they could not even wander in the desert for more than six days at a time, requiring a seventh day to rest, hence the origin of the Sabbath. It was these charges that led to Philo's apologetic account of Judaism and Jewish history, which was so influential in the development of early church doctrine.
Prejudice against Jews in Roman Empire was formalized in 391, when the Edict of Theodosius established Christianity as the only legal religion in the Roman Empire, although already as early as 305, in Elvira, a Spanish town in Andalusia near Granada, the first known laws of any church council against Jews appeared. Christian women were forbidden to marry Jews unless the Jew first converted to Christianity. Jews were forbidden to extend hospitality to Christians. Jews could not keep Christian concubines and were forbidden to bless the fields of Christians. In 589, in Christian Spain, the Third Council of Toledo ordered that children born of marriage between Jews and Christians be baptized by force. A policy of forced conversion of all Jews was initiated. Thousands fled, and thousands of others converted. [[1]]
[edit] Anti-Semitism in the Middle Ages
In Middle Ages the main source of prejudice against Jews is believed by some to be religious; according to teachings of the Catholic Church, Jews were collectively and permanently responsible for killing Jesus (see Deicide). Others however argue that this was never a formal position of the Catholic Church; it cannot be found in any official magesterial teaching of any pope, and in fact, was repeatedly taught against by numerous popes.
In an addition to prejudice based on religious grounds, there were also socio-economic factors. Local authorities, rulers, and some church officials closed many occupations to the Jews, leaving them to be local tax collectors and lenders These restrictions varied from one locale to another and one time period to another. Jews were also discriminated against because of their participation in the slave trade (especially between Slavic countries and the Muslim empire).
In consequence of their alien status, Jews were often excluded socially and politically from the societies in which they lived, or alternately, were forced to enter professions that were considered socially inferior (tax- and rent-collectors, money-lenders, and so on) which provided a basis for claims that the Jews engaged in usury. Over time, these professions engendered animosity among the people who came into contact with Jews -- peasants, who were forced to pay their taxes to Jews could personify Jews as the people taking their earnings, while remaining loyal to the lords on whose behalf the Jews worked.
In the twentieth century, the most visible forms of anti-Semitism were:
- Racist anti-Semitism, a kind of xenophobia. Some people perceive Jews as people of a racially distinct origin from other peoples, and claim that discrimination on the basis of such distinctness is valid.
- Religious anti-Judaism. Like other religions, Judaism has faced discrimination and violence from people of competing faiths and in countries that practice state atheism. Unlike anti-Semitism in general, this form of prejudice is directed at the religion itself, and so does not affect those of Jewish ancestry who have converted to another religion. Nevertheless, there have been instances, such as in Spain during the Inquisition, in which Jews who had converted were suspected of practicing Judaism in secret.
- Socio-Economic anti-semitism rooted in the disproportionate success, relative to their numbers within the general population, that individuals Jews have achieved in a variety of occupations, including academic, legal, medical, scientific, financial and most rarely political.
From around the 12th century through the 20th there were Christians who believed that some (or all) Jews possessed magical powers; some believed that they had gained these magical powers from making a deal with the devil.
[edit] The blood libel
On many occasions, Jews were accused of a blood libel, the supposed drinking of blood of Christian children in mockery of the Christian Eucharist. According to the authors of these blood libels, the "procedure" for the alleged sacrifice was something like this: a child who had not yet reached puberty, was kidnapped and taken to a hidden place. The child would be tortured by Jews, and a crowd would gather at the place of execution (in some accounts the synagogue itself) and engage in a mock tribunal to try the child. The boy would be presented to the tribunal naked and tied; he would eventually be condemned to death. In the end, the boy would be crowned with thorns and tied or nailed to a wooden cross. The cross would be raised and the blood dripping from the boy's wounds, would be caught in bowls or glasses. Finally, the boy would be killed with a thrust through the heart from a spear, sword, or dagger. His dead body would be removed from the cross and concealed or disposed of, but in some instances rituals of black magic would be performed on it. This method, with some variations, can be found in all the alleged descriptions of ritual murder by Jews.
The story of William of Norwich (d. 1144) is the first known case of ritual murder being alleged by a Christian monk. It does not mention the collection of William's blood for any purpose. The story of Little Saint Hugh of Lincoln (d. 1255) said that after the boy was dead, his body was removed from the cross and laid on a table. His belly was cut open and his entrails removed for some occult purpose, such as a divination ritual. The story of Simon of Trent (d. 1475) highly stressed how the boy was held on a large bowl so all his blood could be collected.
Many blood libel accusations and trials of Jews took place during 1250 CE to 1840 CE. A famous example was one in England, 1255, the case of Little Saint Hugh of Lincoln resulted in the execution of 19 Jews. In Englan, 1475, Simon of Trent, aged two, disappeared, and his father alleged that he had been kidnapped and murdered by the local Jewish community. Fifteen local Jews were sentenced to death and burned. Simon was regarded as a saint, and was canonized by Pope Sixtus V in 1588. His status as a saint was removed in 1965 by Pope Paul VI, though his murder is still promoted as a fact by a handful of extremists. In Kiev, Russia, 1911, a Jewish factory manager, Mendel Bailis, was accused of murdering a Christian child and using his blood in matzos. He was acquitted by an all-Christian jury after a sensational trial in 1913. Int he 20th century, blood libel stories have appeared a number of times in the state-sponsored media of a number of Arab nations, in Arab television shows, and on websites.
For more information please see the article on the blood libel, and the List of blood libels against Jews.
[edit] Host desecration
Host desecration is an anti-Semitic myth similar to the blood libel myth. It started in late 13th century England and France (a century after Christians started making blood libel accusations against Jews), where people claimed that Jews would steal consecrated host wafers and torture them. According to the theory of transubstantiation, a consecrated host wafer became the flesh of Jesus, so it was believed that Jews would steal and torture these wafers to reenact Jesus's crucifixion. This myth portrayed Jews in an even worse light than the blood libels: rather than killing a mere human, the Jews allegedly tortured what they believed to be the Messiah and the son of God.
See the articles on host desecration and Judensau for more information.
[edit] Martin Luther
Martin Luther, founder of Protestant Christianity, was at first friendly towards the Jewish community, believing that the evils of Catholicism had prevented their conversion to Christianity. When he discovered that Jews did not find the Protestant form of Christianity any more congenial, he became hostile to them instead and preached that they were "venomous beats, vipers, disgusting scum, canders, devils incarnate. Their private houses must be destroyed and devastated, they could be lodged in stables. Let the magistrates burn their synagogues and let whatever escapes be covered with sand and mud. Let them force to work, and if this avails nothing, we will be compelled to expel them like dogs in order not to expose ourselves to incurring divine wrath and eternal damnation from the Jews and their lies."
[edit] Pope Clement VIII
Pope Clement VIII (1536-1605) helped promulgate classical anti-Semitism in the Catholic community. In his words, "All the world suffers from the usury of the Jews, their monopolies and deceit. They have brought many unfortunate people into a state of poverty, especially the farmers, working class people and the very poor. Then, as now, Jews have to be reminded intermittently that they were enjoying rights in any country since they left Palestine and the Arabian desert, and subsequently their ethical and moral doctrines as well as their deeds rightly deserve to be exposed to criticism in whatever country they happen to live."
[edit] The Crusades
The Crusades were a series of several military campaigns sanctioned by the Papacy that took place during the 11th through 13th centuries. They began as Catholic endeavors to capture Jerusalem from the Muslims but developed into territorial wars.
The initial conquest of Palestine by the forces of Islam in the 7th century did not interfere much with pilgrimage to Christian holy sites or the security of monasteries and Christian communities in the Holy Land. However, in the year 1009 the Fatimid caliph of Cairo, al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah, had the Church of the Holy Sepulchre destroyed. His successor permitted the Byzantine Empire to rebuild it, and pilgrimage was permitted again. The decisive loss of the Byzantine army to the Seljuk Turks at the Battle of Manzikert in 1071 brought the beginning of Byzantine pleas for troops and support from the West.
The mobs accompanying the first three Crusades attacked the Jewish community in Germany, France, and England, and put many of them to death; this left behind for centuries strong feelings of ill will on both sides. The social position of the Jews in western Europe was distinctly worsened by the Crusades, and legal restrictions became frequent during and after them. They prepared the way for the anti-Jewish legislation of Pope Innocent III., and formed the turning-point in the medieval history of the Jews.
[edit] The Expulsion from England, France, Spain, Germany, and Spain
(to be written)
[edit] Anti-Judaism and Reformation (incl. Martin Luther, Ghettoes, etc.)
Main article: Christianity and anti-Semitism
[edit] The Pale of Settlement and pogroms in Russia
The Pale of Settlement was the border region of Imperial Russia in which Jews were allowed to live. Consisting of a vast swathe of territory of former Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and Crimea, that were annexed with the existing numerous Jewish populations and, as Tsars government intended, where Jews had to remain. The "Pale" included much of present-day Latvia, Lithuania, Belarus, Poland and Ukraine. At its heyday the Pale had a Jewish population of over 4 million and constituted the largest concentration of Jews in the world.
During 1881-1884 a wave of anti-semitic pogroms swept Jewish communties in southern Russia, causing world-wide outcry and propelling mass Jewish emigration. At least some of pogroms are believed to be organized or supported by the Russian okhranka. Although no hard evidence is presented so far, such facts as the indifference of Russian police and army was duly noted, e.g., during the three-day First Kishinev pogrom of 1903, as well as the preceding inciting anti-Jewish articles in newspapers, a hint that pogroms were in line with the internal policy of the Imperial Russia.
[edit] The Bohdan Khmelnytsky massacres
Bohdan Khmelnytsky (that being his Ukrainian name; he was known in Polish as Bohdan Zenobi Chmielnicki, and in Russian as Bogdan Khmelnitsky) was the leader of what came to be known as the Khmelnytsky massacres. Khmelnytsky (c. 1595 - August 6, 1657) was a Polish (arguably) noble, leader of the Zaporozhian Cossacks, hetman of Ukraine, noted for his revolt against Poland (1648 - 1654), and a Treaty of Pereyaslav which led to annexing Ukraine by the Russian Empire.
For centuries after creation of Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth the people of Ruthenia had felt oppressed by the nobles and Jewish traders. Although Ruthenian nobility enjoyed full rights, they quickly polonised and therefore were alienated from common people; the advent of Counter-Reformation meant troubles in relationship between orthodox and catholic faith. Unwilling to attend to the details of administration themselves, Polish magnates made the Jewish citizens a go-between in the transactions with the peasants of Ukraine. They sold and leased certain privileges to Jews for a lump sum, and, while enjoying themself at the court, left it to Jewish leaseholders and collectors to become the embodiment of hatred to the oppressed and long-suffering peasant. Although Chmielnicki's personal resentment influenced his decision to rid the Ukraine of Polish and Ruthenian magnates and Jews, it seems that it was his ambition to become the ruler of Ukraine which was the main motive that led him to instigate the uprising of the Ruthenian people against the magnates and the Jews.
Khmelnytsky told the people that the Poles had sold them as slaves "into the hands of the accursed Jews." With this as their battle-cry, the Cossacks massacred a huge number of Jews during the years of 1648-1649. The precise number of victims may never be known, but estimates range from a minimum of 10,000 to well over 100,000 Jews murdered. See the article on Bohdan Khmelnytsky for a fuller treatment of this subject.
[edit] The Enlightenment and the rise of racial anti-Semitism
Racial anti-Semitism, the most modern form of anti-Semitism, is a type of racism mixed with religious persecution. Racial anti-Semites believe erroneously that the Jewish people are a distinct race. They also believe that Jews are inherently inferior to people of other races.
As mentioned earlier, modern European anti-Semitism has its origin in 19th century pseudo-scientific theories that the Jewish people are a sub-group of Semitic peoples; Semitic people were thought by many Europeans to be entirely different from the Aryan, or Indo-European, populations, and that they can never be amalgamated with them. In this view, Jews are not opposed on account of their religion, but on account of their supposed racial characteristics: greed, a special aptitude for money-making, aversion to hard work, clannishness and obtrusiveness, lack of social tact, and especially of patriotism.
One of the most infamous 19th century anti-Semitic tractates is the Russian literary hoax, The Protocols of the Elders of Zion.
[edit] Anti-Semitism in the 20th century
[edit] The Dreyfus Affair
The Dreyfus Affair was a political scandal which divided France for many years during the late 19th century. It centered on the 1894 treason conviction of Alfred Dreyfus, a Jewish artillery officer in the French army. Dreyfus was, in fact, innocent: the conviction rested on false documents, and when high-ranking officers realised this they attempted to cover up the mistakes. The writer Emile Zola exposed the affair to the general public in the literary newspaper L'Aurore (The Dawn) in a famous open letter to the President of France|Président de la République Félix Faure, titled J'accuse! (I Accuse!) on January 13, 1898.
The Dreyfus Affair split France between the dreyfusards (those supporting Alfred Dreyfus) and the antidreyfusards (those against him). The quarrel was especially violent since it involved many issues then highly controversial in a heated political climate.
Dreyfus was pardoned in 1899, readmitted into the army, and made a knight in the Legion of Honour. An Austrian Jewish journalist named Theodor Herzl was assigned to report on the trial and its aftermath. The injustice of the trial and the anti-Semitic passions it aroused in France and elsewhere turned him into a determined Zionist; ultimately turning the movement into an international one.
Also see Alfred Dreyfus and the Dreyfus Affair.
[edit] The Holocaust
The most horrific manifestation of anti-Semitism this century, subsequent to the rise of far-right ideologies in Europe, led to the Holocaust or Shoah during World War II, in which millions of Jews in Europe were systematically murdered. See the Holocaust, Warsaw Ghetto, and Protest of Zofia Kossak-Szczucka.
[edit] Anti-Semitism and anti-Zionism
Anti-Zionism is a term that has been used to describe several very different political and religious points of view (both historically and in current debates) all expressing some form of opposition to Zionism. A large variety of commentators - politicians, journalists, academics and others - believe that criticisms of Israel and Zionism are often disproportionate in degree and unique in kind, and attribute this to anti-Semitism. In turn, critics of this view believe that associating anti-Zionism with anti-Semitism is intended to stifle debate, deflect attention from valid criticism, and taint anyone opposed to Israeli actions and policies.
Also see the main article: Anti-Zionism.
[edit] Modern anti-Semitism in America and Western Europe
Passion plays, dramatic stagings representing the trial and death of Jesus, have historically been used in some Christian communities to arouse hatred of local Jews; the plays usually depict the entire Jewish people as condemning Jesus to crucifixion and being collectively guilty of deicide, murdering God. (Some critics have compared Mel Gibson's recent film The Passion of the Christ to these kinds of passion plays, but this characterization is hotly disputed).
- In the years leading up to America's entry into World War II, Father Charles Coughlin, an anti-Semitic radio preacher, as well as many other prominent public figures, condemned "the Jews" because they were leading America into war. While most Jews in America supported the interventionist camp, not all did.
- Jews were condemned by populist politicians for their left-wing politics at the turn of the century.
- Jews are condemned for their alleged high level of participation in the slave trade.
[edit] Anti-Semitism in Poland
The reign of Casimir III the Great (1333 - 1370) made Poland a safe asylum for Jews. The Jewish population of Poland played a very prominent role and their position was comparable with the status of nobles. After the partitions of Poland, and the final defeat of the January Uprising (1863 - 1864), Polish nationalists and Jews began to diverge on many issues.
See History of the Jews in Poland, Jacob Frank and Massacre in Jedwabne.
[edit] Anti-Semitism in Russia and the Soviet Union
Main article: History of the Jews in Russia and Soviet Union
[edit] Anti-Semitism and Islam
Main article: Islam and anti-Semitism
Islam in and of itself is not Anti-Semitic, although the Qur'an criticizes both the Hebrew Bible for allegedly being corrupted, and the Jews for allegedly not adhering to what was revealed to Moses. The Quran refers to Jews and Christians (and other monotheistic religions) as "People of the book" and Islamic law demands that they should be treated as dhimmis, second-class citizens who have a limited rights. Anti-Semitism in the Muslim world increased greatly in the twentieth century.
[edit] Anti-Semitism in the Arab World
Main article: Arabs and anti-Semitism
[edit] Holocaust revisionism
Holocaust revisionists often claim that "the Jews" or a "Zionist conspiracy" is responsible for the exaggeration or wholesale fabrication of the events of the Holocaust. Critics of such revisionism point to an overwhelming amount of physical and historical evidence that supports the mainstream historical view of the Holocaust. It should be noted that most academics also agree that there is no creditable evidence for any such conspiracy. Its most extreme form is Holocaust denial.
[edit] The new anti-Semitism
In recent years some scholars of religion and many Jewish groups, have noted what they describe as the new anti-Semitism. This subject is discussed in a separate article, modern anti-Semitism.
[edit] See also
[edit] References
- The Destruction of the European Jews Raul Hilberg. Holmes & Meier, 1985. 3 volumes
- Denying the Holocaust: The Growing Assault on Truth and Memory Deborah Lipstadt, 1994, Penguin.
- Antisemitism in the New Testament, Lillian C. Freudmann, University Press of America, 1994.
[edit] External links
- The Southern Poverty Law Center
- Christian-Jewish relations
- The Stephen Roth Institute for the Study of Contemporary anti-Semitism and Racism (includes an annual report)
- Response to anti-Semites' posting of Talmud "Quotes"
- The Institute for the Study of Contemporary Anti-Semitism and Racism, Tel Aviv University
- meta:Solution of the Israeli-Palestinian conflict
Category:Anti-Semitism Category:Religious persecution Category:Persecution Category:Jewish history
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