Anti-Americanism

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Flag burning is widely used internationally as a symbolic form of protest against the U.S.

Anti-Americanism, often Anti-American sentiment, is opposition or hostility toward the government, culture, or people of the United States.^[1] In practice, a broad range of attitudes and actions critical of or opposed to the United States have been labelled anti-Americanism and the applicability of the term is often disputed. Contemporary examples typically focus on international opposition to United States policy, though historically the term has been applied to a variety of concepts.

Interpretations of anti-Americanism have often been polarised. Anti-Americanism has been described as a belief^[2] that configures the United States and the "American way of life" as threatening at their core.^[3] However, it has also been suggested that Anti-Americanism cannot be isolated as a consistent phenomenon and that the term merely signifies a rough composite of stereotypes, prejudices and criticisms towards Americans or the United States.^[4]

Whether sentiment hostile to the United States reflects reasoned evaluation of specific policies and administrations, rather than a prejudiced belief system, is a further complication. Globally, increases in perceived anti-American attitudes appear to correlate with particular policies,^[5] such as the Vietnam and Iraq^[6] wars. For this reason, critics often argue the label is a propaganda item that is used to dismiss any censure of the United States as irrational.^[7]

Mural: Tehran, Iran. 2004

Graffiti: Stockholm, Sweden. 1980s

[edit] Use of the term

The use of the term anti-Americanism has been catalogued from 1948, entering wide political language in the 1950s.^[8] The related term "Americanisation" (to which anti-Americanism is at least partly a response) has been dated to a French source as early as 1867.^[9] Labeling earlier attitudes and commentary "anti-American" is thus partly a retroactive exercise, though there are numerous examples of hostility directed at the country from at least the late 18th century onwards.

Contemporary usage is often controversial. The term itself does not imply a critical attitude based on rational objections but rather a prejudiced system of thought and it is therefore rarely employed as a self-identifier (i.e. "I am anti-American...") as this implies bias. Instead, it is often used as a pejorative by those who object to another individual or group's stance toward the United States or its policies. Advocates of the significance of the term argue, for instance, that Anti-Americanism represents a coherent and dangerous ideological current, comparable to anti-Semitism.^[10] Anti-Americanism has also been described as theory that seeks to frame the consequences of difficult US policy choices as evidence of a specifically American moral failure, as opposed to what may be unavoidable failures of a complicated foreign policy that comes with superpower status.^[11]

Its status as an "-ism" is a greatly contended aspect and it is often called a propaganda term by critics who feel it is used to dismiss any censure of the United States as irrational. American academic Noam Chomsky, a prolific critic of U.S. policy, asserts that the use of the term within the U.S. has parallels with methods employed by totalitarian states or military dictatorships; he compares the term to "anti-Sovietism", a label used by the Kremlin to suppress dissident or critical thought, for instance.^[12]

Other scholars have also suggested that a plural of Anti-Americanisms, specific to country and time period, more accurately describe the phenomenon than any broad generalization.^[13] The widely used "anti-American sentiment", meanwhile, less explicitly implies an ideology or belief system.

[edit] History

Since the founding of the United States of America, anti-Americanism has existed in different forms and for different reasons. Some anti-American views derive from ideological resistance to American values and culture. Other views are expressions of group identity, racism, and xenophobia. Still other anti-American sentiments are reactions to the policies of the United States government.

[edit] The degeneracy thesis

Anti-American sentiment in Europe originated with the discovery of America, the study of the Native Americans, and the examination of its flora, fauna, and climate. The first anti-American theory, the "degeneracy thesis," portrayed America as a regressive and culturally bankrupt continent. The theory that the humidity and other atmospheric conditions in America physically and morally weakened both men and animals was commonly argued in Europe and debated by early American thinkers such as Alexander Hamilton, Benjamin Franklin, and Thomas Jefferson.

In 1768 Cornelius de Pauw, court philosopher to Frederick II of Prussia and chief proponent of this thesis, described America as "degenerate or monstrous" colonies and argued that, "the weakest European could crush them with ease."^[14]

The theory was extended to argue that the natural environment of the United States would prevent it from ever producing true culture. Paraphrasing Pauw, the French Encyclopedist Abbé Raynal wrote, "America has not yet produced a good poet, an able mathematician, one man of genius in a single art or a single science."^[15] (So virulent was Raynal's antipathy that his book was suppressed by the French monarchy.)

[edit] Anti-technology and Romantic hostility

Nazi propaganda poster addressing the Dutch public in 1944 with the words: "The USA are supposed to save European culture". The image utilizes a number of themes, some of which (racism, use of excessive force, American culture and the influence of Judaism) are still in use within some varieties of modern anti-Americanism.

The French Revolution created a new type of anti-American political thought, hostile to the political institutions of the United States and their impact upon Europe. Furthermore, the Romantic strain of European thought and literature, hostile to the Enlightenment view of reason and obsessed with history and national character, disdained the American project.

The German poet Nikolaus Lenau encapsulated the Romantic view, "With the expression Bodenlosigkeit (rootlessness), I think I am able to indicate the general character of all American institutions; what we call Fatherland is here only a property insurance scheme."

With the rise of American industry in the late nineteenth century, intellectual anti-American discourse entered a new form. Mass production, the Taylor system, and the speed of American life and work became a major threat to some intellectuals' view of European life and tradition.

Friedrich Nietzsche wrote, "The breathless haste with which they (the Americans) work - the distinctive vice of the new world - is already beginning ferociously to infect old Europe and is spreading a spiritual emptiness over the continent."

It has been argued that this thesis transformed into a Heideggerian critique of technologism. Heidegger wrote in 1935: "Europe lies today in a great pincer, squeezed between Russia on the one side and America on the other. From a metaphysical point of view, Russia and America are the same, with the same dreary technological frenzy and the same unrestricted organization of the average man."

A derivative of the thesis regarding the soullessness of America and its inherent threat to Europe was also used in Fascist rhetoric and in German and Japanese propaganda during World War II. It has been argued that the Heideggerian critique, incorporated into existentialist (Sartre) and leftist thought after the war, played a central role in the political rhetoric of many Western European Communist parties.^{[citation needed]}

[edit] Nationalism, xenophobia and ethnic discrimination

Some critics argue that anti-Americanism ideology often correlates with other forms of perceived extremism, such as virulent nationalist movements, radical Islam, or communism.

Self-proclaimed French anti-anti-American, Bernard-Henri Levy, described this view, "Anti-Americanism is a horror… It is a magnet of the worst. In the entire world and in France in particular, everything that is the worst in people's heads comes together around anti-Americanism: racism, nationalism, chauvinism, anti-semitism."^[16]

[edit] Racialism

In the middle of the nineteenth century, the racialist theories of Arthur de Gobineau and others spread through Europe. The presence of blacks and "lower quality" immigrant groups made racialist thinkers discount the potential of the United States. The infinite mixing of America would lead to the ultimate degeneracy. Gobineau said that America was creating "greatest mediocrity in all fields: mediocrity of physical strength, mediocrity of beauty, mediocrity of intellectual capacities - we could almost say nothingness."

[edit] Anti-globalism

See also: Anti-globalisation, Anti-globalisation and antisemitism

According to its opponents, globalisation has magnified the visibility of trade conflicts and decreased job security^[17], and is often attributed to either US or Anglo-American influence^[18] "Globalization is the result of powerful governments, especially that of the United States, pushing trade deals and other accords^[19]." Anti-globalist resentments stem from perceptions that the United States was the key inspiration for globalisation and neoliberal free trade policy. This exposed previously isolated countries to the spread of the English language and American popular culture, a process that some have labelled cultural imperialism despite the role played by consumer choice (see American Cultural Imperialism). The 'Anglo-American' corporate business model is the subject of much criticism ("the EU constitution on offer, [Laurent Fabius] had argued, was too low on social protection and too high on shameful Anglo-Saxon economic liberalism")^[20] American business in particular is frequently criticised for its perceived lack of attention to environmental issues, including various issues related to high use of fossil fuels.

[edit] National Identity

Anti-US banner in a demonstration in Brazil, stating: USA It is necessary to resist. Long live Brazil!!!

Just as the United States has defined itself against Monarchical and Communist countries during its history and is now defending itself against terrorism and radical Islam, the use of anti-American ideologies may represent a way for nations to unify the country and bridge political divisions and/or to cover up evident flaws in their political or economic system. Certain forms of social identity theory argue that the existence of "an other" is crucial to the development of group identity. In the case of a European strand of anti-Americanism, some authors, like A.S. Markowitz in Uncouth Nation: Why Europe Dislikes America, argue it would be linked to the creation of a coalescing European identity.

[edit] Snobbery

A popular, non-political form of anti-Americanism is an attitude that regards American culture as inherently inferior, and lacking in the fine manners, traditions and depth of older societies. It is often accompanied by an aversion to American products and ideas such as McDonalds, American English, or Hollywood movies simply because they are American, and a corresponding preference for non-American alternatives.

[edit] Political policies and hypocrisy

• U.S. Foreign Policy - Main article: Opposition to U.S. foreign policy.

Samuel Johnson hit upon one theme that, in various and different forms, has long defined some forms of anti-American sentiment: the perceived hypocrisy of a supposed freedom-loving people engaged in less than admirable practices. Americans in his eyes were hypocrites in their relations with Indigenous peoples and African slaves.

"How is it that we hear the loudest yelps for liberty among the drivers of negroes?" He famously stated that, "I am willing to love all mankind, except an American."

Americans, for their part, mirrored this criticism with statements about the treatment of colonial subjects by European powers.

[edit] Early 20th century

As European immigration to the United States continued and the country's economic potential became more obvious, anti-American stances grew a much more explicit geopolitical dimension. A new strand of anti-American sentiment started to appear as America entered the competition for influence in the Pacific, and anti-Americanism was widespread among the Central Powers after the U.S. entered the First World War. Furthermore, many of the anti-American ideological threads spread to other areas, such as Japan and Latin America, where Continental philosophy was popular and growing American power was increasingly viewed as a threat. In political terms, even among the allies of the United States, Britain and France, there was resentment at the end of the war as they found themselves massively in debt to the United States. These sentiments became even more widespread during the interbellum and Great Depression and sometimes tended toward the anti-Semitic: the belief that America was ruled by a Jewish conspiracy was common in countries ruled by fascists before and during World War II.

[edit] Cold War foreign policy

During the Cold War, anti-Americanism grew within the sphere of the Soviet Union and spread to some other parts of the world, such as Africa and Asia. The Vietnam War boosted anti-American sentiment. In addition, the United States' support for right-wing authoritarian regimes and numerous covert operations during this era had been likewise criticized. Support for military dictatorships and authoritarian governments during and after the Cold War, such as Augusto Pinochet's right-wing régime in Chile, also bred anti-American sentiments.

[edit] Post-Cold War policies

Ukrainian 2004 election poster of Nataliya Vitrenko depicting a hand symbolizing USA and NATO with a Nazi swastika

The fall of the Soviet Union may have brought an increase in anti-Americanism because the U.S. was left as the world's only superpower and people who formerly saw the United States as a bastion against Communism or needed the American security umbrella no longer felt the need to support the United States. Where the governments of allied states in particular had felt disinclined to openly criticize US policy during the Cold War, they have had fewer such qualms since. In addition, criticism of American economic sanctions and embargos toward various countries, including Cuba and Iran, while maintaining commercial relations with countries such as China generates resentment.

The belief that America was ruled by a Jewish conspiracy or that Israel was an American puppet state has also motivated anti-American hatred in some circles during the last third of the 20th century. Other items of concern include American military interventions and perceived imperialism, especially in connection with the 2003 invasion of Iraq, and the perceived selective favor given to allies of the United States in international institutions, especially involving issues like nuclear proliferation. Also the apparent dismissal of international law, i.e. the treatment of detainees, in the War on Terror has intensified criticism.

[edit] Regional Attitudes

Anti-Americanism in some form has existed across different American presidential administrations, though its severity may wax and wane considerably depending upon particular economic or geopolitical issues. George W. Bush's presidency, for instance, is widely seen as inducing a major increase in Anti-Americanism,^[21] with the 2003 invasion of Iraq and controversies such as the Guantanamo Bay detention camp and CIA "torture flights" badly affecting global opinions of the U.S.^[22]

[edit] Australia

While not to the extent of Europe there is a rising attitude of anti-Americanism in Australia. Many Australian people see Americanism encroaching on traditional Australian values and culture such as the idealities of a "fair go" and a laid back approach to life being replaced with corporatism and bureaucracy.

Our love/hate relationship with US culture is possibly the most contradictory aspect of Australian culture and identity today. We consume vast amounts of US popular culture in an addictive manner but, as with the daily consumption of Coke or cigarettes, this consumption comes with a guilty aftertaste for many. Recent surveys show Australians to be among the most enthusiastic consumers of US culture and one of the nations most worried about the Americanisation of our society. This paradox goes some way to explaining why Australian anti-Americanism is often inarticulate and not classifiable as pathological anti-Americanism.

[edit] Europe

During the Bush administration, public opinion of America has declined dramatically in Europe. A Pew Global Attitudes Project poll shows "favourable opinions" of America between 2000 and 2006 dropping from 83% to 56% in the United Kingdom, from 62% to 39% in France, from 78% to 37% in Germany and from 50% to 23% in Spain [3].

Even in Britain, a traditional US ally, there is growing dissatisfaction with America. A June 2006 poll by Populus for The Times Populus poll showed that the number of Britons agreeing that "it is important for Britain’s long-term security that we have a close and special relationship with the US" had fallen to 58% (from 71% in April), and that 65% believed that "Britain’s future lies more with Europe than America". 44% agreed that "America is a force for good in the world." A later poll reported in The Guardian [4] during the 2006 Israel-Lebanon conflict said that 63% of Britons felt that Britain is tied too closely to the US.

Fabbrini (2004) reports the American invasion of Iraq in the spring of 2003 brought anti-Americanism to the surface of public debate in Europe. The reaction to US unilateralism has been nourished by a complex of fears, two in particular: the presumed economic and cultural Americanization of Europe and the Americanization of the European political process. The overwhelming global power acquired by the United States in the post-Cold War era and the unilateral exercise of that power, especially after 9/11 attacks September 11, 2001 fed the anti-American sentiment contributing to its most militant manifestation. Although anti-Americanism has been deeply rooted in European political cultures and experiences, its reemergence was greatly triggered by American foreign policy strategy, Fabbrini argues.

In Europe in 2002, vandalism of American companies was reported in Venice, Athens, Berlin, Zürich, Tbilisi (Georgia), and Moscow. [5]

[edit] Asia

In Japan and South Korea, much anti-Americanism has focused on the sometimes criminal behavior of American military personnel, aggravated especially by high-profile cases of sexual assaults on locals by U.S. servicemen. The on-going U.S. military presence in Okinawa remains a contentious issue in Japan.^[23]

In South Korea, two junior high school students were killed by American military personnel in a traffic accident at the final stage of a presidential election in 2002. As a result, the Korean public opinion was enraged and Roh Moo-hyun, who advocated anti-Americanism, was elected President. President Roh Moo-Hyun and his administration considerably weakened the alliance of the United States and South Korea.^[24] Also, the Iraq War and foreign policy of America was invoked as rationales for inciting negative attitudes towards America in South Korea.

[edit] Middle East

The Middle East region has been a focal point of much anti-American sentiment in the latter decades of the 20th century and the beginning of the 21st, often blamed on specific US policies in the region, particularly its close relationship with Israel. The term Great Satan, as well as the chant "Death to America" have been in continual use in Iran since at least the Iranian revolution in 1979. The Iranian capital Tehran has many examples of anti-American murals and posters sponsored by the state; the former US Embassy in the city has been decorated with a number of such murals.

In 2002 and 2004, Zogby International polled the favorable/unfavorable ratings of the U.S. in Saudi Arabia, Egypt, Jordan, Lebanon, Morocco and the United Arab Emirates. In Zogby's 2002 survey, 76% of Egyptians had a negative attitude toward the United States, compared with 98% in 2004. In Morocco, 61% viewed the country unfavorably in 2002, but in two years, that number has jumped to 88 percent. In Saudi Arabia, such responses rose from 87% in 2002 to 94% in June. Attitudes were virtually unchanged in Lebanon but improved slightly in the UAE, from 87 % who said in 2002 that they disliked the United States to 73% in 2004.^[25] However most of these countries showed a marked distinction between negative perceptions of the United States, and much less negative of Americans.^[25]

The Pew Research Institute probed more deeply the stereotypes of westerners in the Middle East. While more than 70% of middle easterners identified more than 3 negative characteristics of the Westerner stereotype, the three strongest were selfish, violent and greedy. Few had positive opinions of Westerners, but the strongest positive stereotypes were devout and respectful of women.^[26] The report also demonstrates strong unfavorable views of Jews and weakly favorable views of Christians predominate in the Middle East. In Jordan, 61%, Pakistan 27%, and Turkey 16% have favorable views of Christians while in Jordan 1%, Pakistan 6%, and Turkey 15% have favorable views of Jews.^[26]

[edit] The Americas

In Latin America, anti-American sentiment has deep roots dating back to the 1830s and the Texas Revolution. Other significant 19th century events which led to a rise in anti-American sentiment were the 1846-1848 Mexican-American War, American mercenary William Walker's 1855 intervention in Nicaragua, and the Spanish American War of 1898. US support for dictators such as Augusto Pinochet, Anastasio Somoza and Alfredo Stroessner led to more. Support for ^[27] the 1973 Chilean coup d'état, as well as other economic and military interventions in the region added further to these sentiments.

The perceived failures of the neo-liberal reforms of the 1980s and the 1990s intensified opposition to the Washington consensus,^[28] leading to a resurgence in support for Pan-Americanism, support for popular movements in the region, the nationalization of key industries and centralization of government.^[29] The movement saw the rise of leaders critical of the United States throughout the region. Most vocal has been Hugo Chávez of Venezuela, who is known for his strong opposition towards George W. Bush, driving him to address him in many ways; the most known "Mister Danger". ^[30]

[edit] See also

[edit] Related Content

[edit] Anti-state or ethnic sentiment

[edit] Notes

[edit] References

[edit] External links

[edit] Peer-Reviewed Articles

• Chiozza, Giacomo (November 7 2004). "Love and Hate: Anti-Americanism in the Islamic World". Center for Advanced Study in the Behavioral Sciences.  PDF file
• Fabbrini, Sergio (September 2004). "Layers of anti-Americanism: Americanization, American unilateralism and anti-Americanism in a European perspective". European Journal of American Culture 23 (2): 79. 
• Furia, Peter A.; Russell E. Lucas (September 2006). "Determinants of Arab Public Opinion on Foreign Relations.". International Studies Quarterly 50 (3): 585. 
• Johnston, Gregory (August 2006). "Anti-Americanism: An Exploration of a Contested Concept in Western Europe". Dissertation.  PDF file
• Katzenstein, Peter J.; Robert O. Keohane (2005). Anti-americanisms in World Politics. Cornell University Press: Center for Advanced Study in the Behavioral Sciences. ISBN 0-8014-7351-9. 
  • Choudhury, Nusrat. "The Economic Impact of Anti-Americanism".  PDF draft chapter later found in the book Anti-americanisms in World Politics
  • Katzenstein, Peter J.; Robert O. Keohane (2005). "Types and Sources of Anti-Americanism: A Framework for Analysis". University of Southern California Center for International Studies.  Word document draft chapter later found in the book Anti-americanisms in World Politics
• McPherson, Alan (Winter/Spring 2004). "Myths of Anti-Americanism: The Case of Latin America". The Brown Journal of World Affairs X (2): 141.  PDF file
• Rubin, Barry; Judith Rubin (Summer/Fall 2004). "Anti-Americanism Re-Examined". The Brown Journal of World Affairs XI (I): 17. 
• Shlapentokh, Vladimir; Joshua Woods (Winter / Spring 2004). "The Threat of International Terrorism and the Image of the United States Abroad". The Brown Journal of World Affairs X (2): 167.  PDF file
• Vedrine, Hubert (Winter/Spring 2004). "On Anti-Americanism". The Brown Journal of World Affairs X (2): 117.  PDF file

[edit] Government Documents

• Schneider, W. (September 23 2004). "Final report of the Defense Science Board (DSB) Task Force on Strategic Communication, United States Office of the Secretary of the Defense". US Pentagon.  PDF file
  • Regan, Tom (November 29 2004). "They hate our policies, not our freedom Pentagon report contains major criticisms of administration". Christian Science Monitor.  Explanation of the report

[edit] Magazine & Newspaper Articles

• Arlidge, John (September 13, 2001). "BBC Apologises to Envoy for Anti-American Abuse". Guardian Unlimited. 
• Australian Broadcasting Corporation (2003). "What the World Thinks of America". 
• British Broadcasting Corporation (2003). "What the World Thinks of America". 
• Canadian Broadcasting Corporation (2003). "What the World Thinks of America". 
• Ceaser, James W. (Summer 2003). "A Genealogy of Anti-Americanism". The Public Interest. 
• Fleming, Chris; John O'Carroll. "Understanding Anti-Americanism". Anthropoetics 9 (2). 
• Fulford, Robert (September 14, 2001). "U.S. Bashing No Longer a Game". National Post. 
• Jacobson, Nora (November 28, 2004). "Before You Flee to Canada, Can We Talk?". The Washington Post. 
• Kagan, Robert (June-July 2002). "Power and Weakness". Policy Review. 
• Lieven, Anatol (September 28 2001). "After the Attacks: America's New Cold War". Guardian. , Carnegie Endowment for Int'l Peace
• Lobe, Jim (June 3 2003). "Views of U.S. Plummet". Int'l Press Service News Agency. 
• Mead, Walter Russell (March/April 2003). "Why Do They Hate Us? Two Books Take Aim at French Anti-Americanism". Foreign Affairs. 
• Netanyahu, Benjamin (September 20, 2001). "Statement for the Government Reform Committee". http://www.Bnetanyahu.com. 
• Porter, Henry (April 4 2001). "The Great Divide, Why Europe and America are World's Apart". Guardian. 
• Revel, Jean-François (December 2003). "Europe's Anti-American Obsession". The American Enterprise. 
• Rubin, Barry; Judith Rubin (2004). Hating America: A History. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-516773-2. 
• Staff Writer (April 2006). "Anti-Americanism 'feels like racism'". British Broadcasting Corporation. 
• Survey (March 2004). "A Year After Iraq War: Mistrust of America in Europe Ever Higher, Muslim Anger Persists". Pew Research Center. 
• Wellemeyer, Jonathan (December 20, 2006). "Hollywood and the Spread of Anti-Americanism". National Public Radio. 
• Zakaria, Fareed (June 23 2004). "The Arrogant Empire". Newsweek.