Anachronism

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1 Two types
2 Artifacts
3 Art and fiction
4 Scholarship
5 Psychology
6 See also

For the card strategy game, see Anachronism (game).

An anachronism (from the Greek "ανά," "against," and "χρόνος," "time") is anything that is temporally incongruous — that is, it appears in a temporal context in which it seems sufficiently out of place as to be peculiar, incomprehensible or impossible. The item is often an object, but may be a verbal expression, a technology, a philosophical idea, a musical style, a material, a custom, or anything else closely enough bound to a particular period as to seem odd outside it.

[edit] Two types

A parachronism occurs when an item is presented in a temporal context in which it seems severely dated, obsolete, or archaic. A scholar in 1990 writing with a quill pen is a parachronism. The event is not impossible — a skilled calligrapher or an eccentric might prefer quill pens to modern ballpoints or word processors — but it is markedly out of step with the time. This sort of parachronism may be difficult to distinguish from a retro stylistic choice, and whether such a distinction is meaningful may itself be debatable.

Another sort of parachronism arises when a work based on a particular era's state of knowledge is read within the context of a later era with a different state of knowledge. For example, many scientific works that rely heavily on theories that have later been discredited have become anachronistic with the removal of their underpinnings, and works of speculative fiction often find their speculation quickly outstripped by real-world technological development.

A prochronism, on the other hand, occurs when an item appears in a temporal context in which it could not yet be credibly present (the object had not yet been developed, the verbal expression had not been coined, the philosophy had not yet been formulated, the technology had not yet been created). A mild example might be Western movies' tradition of placing firearms not introduced until the 1870s, such as the Winchester 1873 rifle or the Colt Single Action Army, in frontier society of antebellum and Civil War years. Mild prochronisms such as this may not be noticeable to the uninformed, but severe prochronisms are often comic in their effect (e.g., a ninth-century British peasant earnestly explaining his village as an anarcho-syndicalist collective in the movie Monty Python and the Holy Grail , or a Beatlesque band called the "Bedbugs" appearing in the American Civil War–era TV comedy F-Troop).

[edit] Artifacts

An anachronism can be an artifact which appears out of place archaeologically or geologically. It is sometimes called OOPArt, for "out of place artifact". Anachronisms usually appear more technologically advanced than is expected for their place and period.

However, an apparent anachronism may reflect our ignorance rather than a genuine chronological anomaly. A popular view of history presents an unfolding of the past in which humanity has a primitive start and progresses toward development of technology. Alleged anachronistic artifacts demonstrate contradictions to this idea. Some archaeologists believe that seeing these artifacts as anachronisms underestimates the technology and creativity available to people at the time, although others believe that these are evidence of alternate or "fringe" timelines of human history.

If one envisions human technological advancement as being roughly parallel to the expansion and decline of human civilizations — that is, progressing in a "three steps forward, two steps back" sort of manner — then at least some (perhaps even many) apparent "anachronisms" are to be expected. A good example of this would be concrete, being used in the past by various ancient cultures only to be forgotten about and then re-invented at a later time by another culture, until the present, at which point the technology is employed globally and unlikely to slip into obscurity again.

[edit] Art and fiction

Aristotle, a 4th-century- B.C. philosopher, is portrayed in the 1493 Nuremberg Chronicle as a 15th-century-A.D. scholar.

Anachronism is used especially in works of imagination that rest on a historical basis. Anachronisms may be introduced in many ways, originating, for instance, in disregard of the different modes of life and thought that characterize different periods, or in ignorance of the progress of the arts and sciences and other facts of history. They vary from glaring inconsistencies to scarcely perceptible misrepresentation. It is only since the close of the 18th century that this kind of deviation from historical reality has jarred on a general audience. Anachronisms abound in the works of Raphael and Shakespeare, as well as in those of less celebrated painters and playwrights of earlier times.

In particular, the artists, on the stage and on the canvas, in story and in song, assimilated their characters to their own nationality and their own time. Roman soldiers appear in Renaissance military garb. The Virgin Mary was represented in Italian works with Italian characteristics, and in Flemish works with Flemish ones. Alexander the Great appeared on the French stage in the full costume of Louis XIV of France down to the time of Voltaire; and in England the contemporaries of Joseph Addison found unremarkable (in Pope's words)

"Cato's long wig, flower'd gown, and lacquer'd chair."

Shakespeare's audience similarly did not ask whether the University of Wittenberg had existed in Hamlet's day, or whether clocks that struck time were available in Julius Caesar's ancient Rome.

However, in many works, such anachronisms are not simply the result of ignorance, which would have been corrected had the artist simply had more historical knowledge. Renaissance painters, for example, were well aware of the differences in costume between ancient times and their own, given the renewed attention to ancient art in their time, but often chose to depict ancient scenes in contemporary guise. Rather, these anachronisms reflect a difference of emphasis from the 19th and 20th century attention to depicting details of former times as they "actually" were. Artists and writers of earlier times were usually more concerned with other aspects of the composition, and the fact that the events depicted took place long in the past was secondary. Such a large number of differences of detail required by historic realism would have been a distraction.

Authors sometimes telescope chronology for the sake of making a point. Bolesław Prus does this at several junctures in his 1895 historical novel, Pharaoh.

In recent times, the progress of archaeological research and the more scientific spirit of history have encouraged audiences and artists to view anachronism as an offense or mistake.

Yet modern dramatic productions still rely on anachronism for effect. In particular, directors of Shakespeare's plays may use costumes and props not only of Shakespeare's day or their own, but of any era in between or even those of an imagined future. For instance, the musical Return to the Forbidden Planet crosses The Tempest with popular music to create a science fiction musical. Other popular adaptations of Shakespeare's plays that relied on anachronisms in props and setting were Titus (1999) and William Shakespeare's Romeo + Juliet (1996). A similar approach was used in the 2001 film Moulin Rouge!, in which a diverse selection of 20th-century music is used over a fin de siècle backdrop. Other films, such as Brazil, A Series of Unfortunate Events, or Richard III may create worlds so full of various conflicting anachronisms as to create a unique stylistic environment that lacks a specific time period setting. This use of stylistic anachronism also often appears in children's movies, such as Shrek and Hoodwinked, where it is used for satirical effect. Sometimes a director may use anachronisms to offer a "fresh" angle on an already established historical story. Such as, Andrew Lloyd Webber created two popular musicals, Jesus Christ Superstar and Joseph and the Amazing Technicolor Dreamcoat, which filled traditional biblical stories with various modern-day sensibilities; and on a similar note, Catherine Hardwicke's The Nativity Story shows a field of maize-corn in a Nazareth farming scene. Maize-corn is native to Mesoamerica. It was grown only in the Americas until the late 15th century.

Comedic works of fiction set in the past may use anachronism for a humorous effect. One of the first major films to use anachronism was Buster Keaton's The Three Ages, which included the invention of Stone Age baseball and modern traffic problems in classical Rome. Mel Brooks' 1974 film Blazing Saddles, set in the Wild West in 1874, contains many blatant anachronisms from the 1970s, including a stylish Gucci costume for the sheriff, an automobile, a scene at Grauman's Chinese Theater, and frequent references to Hedy Lamarr (1913-2000). The cartoon The Flintstones depicts many modern appliances in a prehistoric setting. The Disney movie Aladdin, in particular, featured many brief jokes where the Genie briefly changed into caricatures of many famous people from all across time, including many twentieth-century figures and comedians, for the purpose of quoting lines to make jokes at the film. Series 3 of The Micallef Program included a sketch by the name of 'Billy Anachronism' in which a janitor was sent back to multiple time periods before returning to the 70's with several items of clothing depicting the places he had been.

Even with careful research, science-fiction writers risk anachronism as their works age, because of things they failed to predict: for example, many books nominally set in the mid-21st century assume the continued existence of the Soviet Union. Futuristic movies, such as Demolition Man, sometimes end up having anachronisms, such as the fact that in that movie, the car brand Oldsmobile is shown to still exist. This can happen another way as well: William Gibson's Sprawl trilogy depicts a cyberpunk world of fantastically advanced technology in which personal mobile phones do not exist and characters rely extensively on pay phones or exotic satellite-based communication. (Mobile phones already existed at the time of the works, but Gibson did not foresee their miniaturisation and ubiquity.)

With the detail required for a modern historical movie it is easy to introduce anachronisms. The 1995 hit film Apollo 13 contains numerous errors, including the use of the incorrect NASA logo and the appearance of The Beatles' Let It Be album a month before it was actually released. Sometimes, movie anachronisms are intentional, but they can still appear accidental. A good example would be the musical score of the Best-Picture-winning film "The Sting". The ragtime piano pieces (composed by Scott Joplin) were created in the 1890s and 1900s, while the setting of the movie was the Great Depression of the 1930s. Although the creators of the movie were aware that ragtime had long since lost its appeal before the Depression, they thought the two would mix well together. But many people were fooled into believing that the backdrop and the music were of the same time, which sparked considerable confusion and misinterpretations of the filmmakers' intentions. Anachronisms can often show up when filming is done on location, since buildings or even natural features may be present that would not have been at the time the film was set, or may be missing in the film but still present at the time it is set. In the case of films made in the past but set in the future, a building or feature may be seen that is known to no longer exist. Especially with regards to historical items and vehicles, anachronisms can stem from convenience, for example a historically accurate item might be replaced with a later but fairly similar item, especially if a historically accurate item cannot be sourced. In the case of replicas, signs of modern construction techniques may be visible.

Those computerized adventure games, in which a player moves about on a computer screen solving puzzles, that are set at a given historical date often have brazen technological anachronisms. The reason for this is that mechanisms such as instant message pagers and GPS devices from which one's coordinates on the globe can be read out are handy devices to hang the gameplay on, and the players could be expected to have heard of them, so an equivalent based on antiquated media is often hypothesized. The backdrop and style of the items are considered just a sort of "local color".

Language anachronisms in films are quite common. They can be intentional or unintentional. Intentional anachronisms let us understand more readily a film set in the past. Language changes so fast that most modern people (even many scholars) would not easily be able to understand a film set anywhere in the English-speaking world of the 18th century; thus, we willingly accept characters speaking an updated language. Unintentional anachronisms include putting modern slang and figures of speech into the mouths of characters from the past. Modern audiences want to understand George Washington when he speaks, but if he starts talking about "the bottom line" (a figure of speech that did not come into popular language until at least two centuries after Washington's time), that is an unintentional anachronism.

[edit] Scholarship

In academic writing, there is no place for deliberate anachronism, and here anachronism is regarded as an error of scholarly method. For example, we now know that the concept of Translatio imperii was first formulated in the 12th century. To use it to interpret 10th century literature, as early 20th century scholarship did, is anachronistic, an error which (once we see it) is obvious as such. Other examples are less obvious: to refer to the Holy Roman Empire as "the First Reich" is to view medieval history through National Socialist glasses and as such is anachronistic. However, the boundaries are often difficult to draw. Some would suggest that Marxist, feminist or Freudian approaches to literature written before these philosophies were developed are necessarily anachronistic; others argue that modern insights on the human condition are applicable to all times and cultures.

[edit] Psychology

Some people suffer from a psychological condition called anachronistic displacement, referring to an obsessive or dysfunctional belief or claim that a person "belongs" or should properly exist in another time period, and are thus unable to deal with ordinary factors in the everyday world. Senior citizens in particular can often experience feelings of anachronistic displacement if they feel the modern world has changed to the point where they no longer "fit in" or understand their surroundings.