American middle class

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A monument to the working and supporting classes along Market Street in the heart of San Francisco's Financial District, home to tens-of-thousands of professional and managerial middle class workers each day. A stark reminder of class in the United States.

The American middle class is a term whose definition is especially vague.^[1][2] There are several ideological and economic theories attempting to define the concept that is the middle class. One may define the middle class as consisting of all those who are neither "poor" nor "rich" or one may define the middle class as being a relative elite of professionals and managers. These theories vary in exactly how many individuals and households they identify as middle class.^[3] With differing definitions of the middle class, comes a considerable amount of diversity among the defining features of middle class. Typical occupations, influence as well as income and wealth of middle class households vary with the chosen ideology, thus further complicating any attempts at defining the middle class. Sociologists such as Dennis Gilbert, James Henslin, William Thompson and Joseph Hickey have brought forth class models in which the middle class is divided into two sections who combined constitute 44% to 49% of the population.^[2][4][5]

Current survey results indicate that the vast majority of Americans consider themselves to be members of the middle class;^[6] thus indicating that the term middle class is often used to describe those at neither end of the socio-economic strata.^[7] The problem that arises from the three class system in which the middle class constitutes the majority of the population is that the vast economic and cultural fragmentation among those in the extended middle of the social strata is ignored. The idea of a middle class majority also contradicts leading sociological class models which indicate the exsistence of a non-middle class majority. The term middle class may thus be applied to a professional in the top quintile of society as well as a worker in the mid quintile, rendering the term uselessly vague.^[8] In response to rising awareness of the inequities among middle class individuals, the American middle class is often divided into three or two sub-sets. In the class models by sociologists Dennis Gilbert, James Henslin, William Thompson and Joseph Hickey the upper middle class consists of highly educated white collar professionals with great job autonomy. The lower middle class consists of so-called "Semi-professionals," who commonly act as the supporting staff of white collar professionals and hold positions in the professional and managerial fields that feature less work autonomy.^[2][4][5]

As mentioned above another theory attempting to define the vague intellectual concept that is the middle class, states that only professionals and those who would otherwise be considered upper middle class are actually middle class. According to this theory the vast majority of Americans are identified as being working class while the middle class is seen as a modern petite bourgeoisie.^[3] Today many experts and writers state that the middle class or at least those with lifestyles indicative of the American middle class constitutes only a minority of the population,^[9][1] and is in terms of privilege and influence closer to the top of society than the bottom or the working class majority. In this case the middle class consists of professionals who are largely paid to conceptualize, create, and manage and therefore have some degree of influence of the workings of society and their organizations.^[3] These professionals usually have incomes that rank considerably above the average wage and have had the benefit of an advanced post-secondary education, which also entitles them to a high degree of economic security.^[3] This theory defines the middle class as being in the middle between the top and the working class majority in terms of power, education, and wealth. Recent studies indicating that the actual middle of the income strata cannot afford the lifestyle indicative of the middle class has lend support to the notion of the middle class as a quasi-elite.^[9] As a result of the diverse inclusion guidelines for what is middle class, the middle class is commonly subdivided into three or two groups.^[2][4]

[edit] Definitions

America's middle class according to sociologists Dennis Gilbert, James Henslin as well as William Thompson and Joseph Hickey. In all three class system is the middle class divided into two parts, together constituting 47% to 49% of the total population.

The two most common definitions of the middle class are either an economically and culturally highly fragmented group including all those who are neither rich nor poor or that of those individuals with the lifestyle associated with the term middle class.^[3] According to this definition the modern middle class is defined as the center of society would be a group so culturally and economically diverse the term middle class would be rendered useless,^[10][6][1] including clerical and blue collar workers as well as professionals and management in the same class. Thus the group containing professionals and management, which author and social critic Barbara Ehrenreich dubbed the "Professional middle class," is the definition most commonly used by sociologist and political analysts when using lifestyle to define the term middle class. The professional middle class or true middle class is also the class most commonly addressed by the media and general public when using the term, "middle class."^[3] Another theory to deal with the fuzzy nature of the great undefined middle class is to subdivide it into three categories.^[6] The subcategories are the upper middle, which is interchangeable with the term professional middle class, the middle and lower middle class, which is the same as the working class.^[3] In modern day America an economic drift, also referred to as the "Middle class squeeze" has been creating a clearer distinction between the better off professional middle class and those in the actual center of the wealth spectrum who are now fearing cost-cutting, outsourcing related lay-offs.^[9][11]

[edit] The Professional/Managerial Middle Class

The professional middle class, also called the upper middle class, consists mostly of white collar professionals most of whom are well-paid salaried employees--highly educated salaried professionals whose work is largely self-directed. Many have graduate degrees with educational attainment serving as the main distinguishing feature of this class. Household incomes commonly may exceed $100,000, with some smaller one-income earners household having incomes in the high 5-figure range,^[2][12][13] and hold college, often graduate degrees.^[2][14] Middle class professionals tend to conceptualize, create, consult and supervise in their occupation. As a result, upper middle class employees enjoy great autonomy in the work place and are more satisfied with their careers than non-professional middle class individuals. The educational attainment among the members of this class lends the professional middle class its immunity against economic downturns, above-average lifestyle, and also serves as the main entrance barrier into this class.^[3] This class, partially due its occupations does have a great influence on American society and is often seen as social standard despite its relatively small size.^[3] In terms of financial wealth and income, the professional middle class fits in the top third, when excluding the top 5% of American society.^[15] According to Dennis Gilbert, James Henlin as well as Joseph Hickey and William Thompson, the upper middle class constitutes 15% of the population.^[2]

Values and mannerisms are difficult to pinpoint for an intellectual concept encompassing millions of persons. Naturally, any large group of people will feature social diversity to some extent or another. Some generalizations, however, can be made using education and income as class defining criteria. William Thompson and Joseph Hickey noted that upper middle class individual possess a more direct and confident manner of speech.^[2] In her 1989 publication Effects of Social Class and Interactive Setting on Maternal Speech, Erica Hoff-Ginsberg found that among her surveyed subjects, "Upper-middle class mothers talked more per unit of time and sustained longer interactions with children." She also found that the speech of upper middle class mothers differ "in its functional, discourse, and lexico-syntactic properties," from those in the working class.^[16] Upper middle class manners tend to require individuals engaging in conversational discourse with rather distant associates, and to abstain from sharing excessive personal information. This contradicts to working class speech which often includes frequent mentions of one's personal life.^[17] Further research also suggests that working class parents emphasize conformity, traditional gender roles, and the adherence to external standard in their children, such as being neat, clean and to "Believe in strict leadership." (Gilbert, 1998) This contrast to professional class households were gender roles were more equalitarian and loosely defined. Upper middle class children were largely thought to adhere to internal standards, with curiosity, individuality, self-direction and openess of new idea being emphasized.^[4]

Sociologists such as Dennis Gilbert, William Thompson and Joseph Hickey estimate the upper middle class to constitute roughly 15% of the population. Using this figure, one may conclude that the American upper middle class consist of professionals making more than $62,500 who commonly reside in households with six figure incomes.^{[18][19] [2][4]} Both of these figures are considerably above the national median of $32,000 regarding individual income and $46,000 for households. Many upper middle class professions feature salaries above $67,348, which was the median household income for a household with two income earners in 2003.^[20][21] For example, the median salary for economists was $72,780, meaning that the majority of economists out earn the majority of two-income households with their single salary alone.^[22] Overall, the median household income of a household whose householder had a Bachelor's degree or higher was $77,179. The median household income for those with Master's degree was $81,023, while those with a Doctorate or Professionals degree had a median income above $100,000 annually.^[23][2][4]

[edit] Lower middle class

According to sociologists such as Dennis Gilbert of Cornell University the middle class is divided into only two groups: the upper middle and lower middle class.^[6] As mentioned above the upper middle class, according to Gilbert as well as Thompson & Hickey constitutes roughly 15% of the population. The lower middle class is the second most populous according to both models the most populous class constituting roughly one third of the population, the same percentage as the working class. According to James M. Henslin who also divides the middle class into two sub-groups, however, the lower middle class is the most populous constituting 34% of the population.^[5] In all three class models the lower middle class is said to consist of "semi-professionals" and lower level white collar employees. An adaptation by sociologists Brian K. William, Stacy C. Sawyer and Carl M. Wahlstrom of Dennis Gilbert's class model gave the following description of the lower middle class:^[5]

Taking into account the percentages provided in the six class model by Gilbert as well as Thompson and Hickey one can apply US Census Bureau statistics regarding income. According to these class models the lower middle class is located roughly between the 52^nd and 84^th percentile of society. In terms of personal income distribution in 2005 that would meant gross annual personal incomes from about $32,500 to $60,000.^[19] As 42% of all households, and majority of those in the top 40%, had two income earners household income figures would be significantly higher ranging from roughly $50,000 to $100,000 annually.^[15] In terms of educational attainment, 27% of persons had a Bachelor's degree or higher. If the upper middle and upper class combined are to constitute 16% of the population it becomes clear that some of those in the lower middle class boast college degrees and some college education.^[24]

[edit] Working class majority

According to some, the majority of Americans may also be correctly be referred to as being members of the working class.^[25] This use of term "Working class" is largely applicable if the nature of work becomes the main determinant of social class. After all, social class is the distribution of individuals among positions within society whose influence and importance differs. Thus the nature of a person's work and the associated degrees of influence, responsibility, and complexity determine, to a large degree, a person's social class. The more influence and responsibility a person has and the more complex his or her work, the higher his or her status in society.^[26] As qualified personnel for relatively important, responsible, and complex occupations are scarce, income increases as well, following the economic principle of scarcity resulting in value. According to this approach, occupation becomes more essential in determining class than income.^[26] Whereas professionals tend to create, conceptualize, consult and instruct, most Americans do not enjoy a high degree of independence in their work as they merely follow set instructions.^[3][25] Many of these working class workers are most commonly, due to their income, called middle-middle or statistical middle class. Class models such as the ones brought forth by Dennis Gilbert or Thompson and Hickey estimate that roughly 53% of Americans are members of the working or lower classes.^[2][4]

It is the nature of their work and lack of influence that leads some to come to the conclusion that most Americans are working class. The majority of workers are not paid to share their thoughts and ideas as much as professionals. They are commonly closely supervised and do not enjoy a great deal of independence in their jobs. They are also not commonly paid to think and their thoughts are not often sought by their employer organizations or clients, which leads to a lack of influence. A dentist's office offers itself as an example.^[3] In May 2004, dentists had a median income of $129,920, indicating a high degree of scarcity for qualified personnel. The opinion and thoughts of dentists, much like those of other professionals, are sought after by their organization and clients. The dentist creates a diagnosis, consults the patient, and conceptualizes a treatment.^[27] Dental hygienists made roughly $28 an hour, about $56,000 annually or $36,000 as many do not work forty hours a week. Unlike dentists, dental hygienists do not have much influence over the treatment of patients.^[28] They merely carry out routine procedures and follow the dentists' instructions. As a result dental hygienists may be referred to as being working class, even though two successful dental hygienists could out earn one dentist. Similar relationships can be observed in other occupations, such as between professors, journalists, and economists on the one hand, and their researchers on the other.

[edit] Vernacular middle class

The term middle class in more colloquial language use may refer all those individuals who might at one point or another be identified as middle class, as they are neither extreme of the socio-economic strata. The term can also be used to describe those at the actual center of the income strata, who may also be referred to as the middle-middle class. There are many different theories on the middle-middle class. The middle-middle class may be composed of those households with an annual income of 80% to 120% of the national median household income. Persons in this income range could be, in accordance to solely economic reasoning be referred to as the American average. Such households would boast annual incomes ranging from $35,200 to $52,800, and thus be located in the middle of the income range.^[15] Such households, while actually being in the middle and thus sometimes referred to as being middle class, cannot, however, afford the middle class lifestyle.^[9] Yet another definition states that the statistical middle class includes all those households with income ranging from $25,000 to $100,000.^[1] This is however a very vague definition as it includes persons from all but the lowest quintile. Using this definition creates a class so economically fragmented that it would lump together those who are struggling to make ends meet with two incomes and those who are able to live the iconic middle class lifestyle with just one income and are highly educated.

[edit] Weberian definition

Some modern theories of political economy consider a large middle class to be a beneficial, stabilizing influence on society, because it has neither the possibly explosive revolutionary tendencies of the lower class, nor the absolutist tendencies of an entrenched upper class. Most sociological definitions of middle class follow Max Weber. Here the middle class is defined by a constituting of professionals or business owners; by a shared culture of domesticity and sub-urbanity; and by a level of relative security against social crisis in the form of socially desired skill or wealth. Thus the theory on the middle class by Max Weber can be cited as one that supports the notion of the middle class being composed of a quasi-elite of professionals and managers, who are largely immune to economic down turns and trends such as out-sourcing which affect the statistical middle class.^[11]

[edit] Class at a glance

SOURCE: US Census Bureau, 2005; Adapted from Joseph Kahl (1993), Dennis Gilbert (1997), James Henslin (2003), William Thompson and Joseph Hickey (2005).^[2][4][5]

[edit] Income distribution

Main articles: Personal income in the United States and Household income in the United States

2005 United States household and individual income distribution (age 25+ w/ earnings) in $10,000 increments (in increments of $50,000 for incomes exceeding $100,000).^[29]

While there is no one coherent definition of middle class and the incomes of those to whom the term is applied will likely vary depending on how one defines middle class, certain income trends may be helpful. Depending on whether the middle class is defined as consisting of professionals or of those in the middle of the income strata the following income trend may or may not be helpful in determining what middle class is. In 2004, the middle fifty percent of households had annual gross incomes between $22,500 and $75,000. The top quarter (26.8%) of households earned more than $75,000 while the bottom quarter earned (25.24%) earned less than $22,500 annually.^[29] Overall the median personal income of a male, age 25 or older was $33,517, while that for a female was $19,679. The median income for a similar male with a college degree was $55,751; $73,853 for those with a PhD.^[30] The median household income for a household with two income earners was $67,348, roughly twice the overall median personal income of an American male over the age of 25. The overall median household income in the country was $43,318.^[31]

[edit] Education and income

Educational attainment is one of the most prominent determinants of class status. As educational attainment represents expertise, which is a necessary component of the capitalistic market system, its ownership may be seen as the ownership of one of the factors of production.^[13] In other words, those with advanced degrees already own one of the essential buttresses of the economy: expertise. Additionally educational attainment is basis for occupational selection. Those with higher educational attainment tend to be positioned in occupations with greater autonomy, influence over the organizational process, and better financial compensation. While economic compensation is merely the result of scarcity, educational attainment may be related to that very economic principle as well. The attainment of a graduate degree represents the acquisition of expertise, a factor of production, that in itself may be scarce; thus leading to better financial compensation for the owner.^[13] As stated above the upper middle class features a strong reliance on educational attainment (the ownership of expertise) for much of its social and economic well-being.^[23][3][6] The following chart further explains the strong correlation between educational attainment and personal as well as household income.^[14]

SOURCE: US Census Bureau, 2003^[14]

[edit] Double income controversy

Percentage distribution of 2+ income households among the quintiles

Income is one of the most commonly used attributes of a household to determine its class status. The relationship between income, which mostly arises from the scarcity of a certain skill, and class status may, however, prove to be more complex than initially perceived.^[26] While the idea is that income reflects status by reflecting educational attainment and occupation, household income may just be the product of two or more incomes combined. In 2005, 42% of all American households had two income earners. The vast majority of households in the top quintile had two or more income earners. This means that most households with an annual gross income of over $88,000 annually would not boast such incomes if it were not for them having two income earners. As a result the perceived affluence of many households is merely the result of the combination of two incomes.^[32]Therefore, the question of whether or not the combination of incomes results in higher social status arises. Of course, there is no definite answer as class is a vague sociological concept.^[2]

Scoiologist Dennis Gilbert acknowledges that a working class household with two income earners may out-earn a single-income upper middle class household as the number of income earners has evolved into one of the most important variables in determining household income. He contends that households from a given class may out-earn households of higher standing due to a difference in the number of income earners. For example, according to the US Department of Labor, two registered nurses could quite easily command a household income of $126,000 annually,^[33] while the median income for a lawyer was $94,930.^[34] As perceptions of class in the US remain ambigous, the question of whether or not the two nurses actually achieve the same status level as the lawyer remains unanswered as well. The combination of two or more incomes allows for households to increase their income substantially without moving higher on the occupational latter or attaining higher educational degrees. Thus it is important to remember that the seemingly favorable economic position of households in the top two quintiles is in most cases merely the result of two or more combined incomes,^[32] leading sociologists such as Dennis Gilbert to conclude that household income "will vary considerably in practice."

[edit] Income at a glance

SOURCE: US Census Bureau, 2006, for incomes in 2005

[edit] Influence

Alan Greenspan, former Federal Reserve Chairman

Even though Alan Greenspan was a member of America's top 5%, economists are mostly members of the professional middle class. Economists like many other members of the professional middle class enjoy a large amount of autonomy in their work with their counsel and ideas guiding the economic policy and strategy of both, private companies as well as that of government agencies such as the Federal Reserve.

The influence of the middle class depends on which theory one utilizes. If the middle class is defined as a modern bourgeoisie, the "middle class" has great influence. If middle class is used in a manner that it includes all persons who are at neither extreme of the social strata, it might still be influential as such definition may include the "professional middle class" which is then commonly referred to as the "upper middle class." Despite the fact that the professional (upper) middle class is a privileged minority, the professional middle class is the perhaps the most influential class in the United States.^[3]

Several reasons can be cited as to why the professional middle class is so influential. One is that journalists, commentators, writers, professors, economists and political scientists, who are essential in shaping public opinion, are almost exclusively members of the professional middle class. Considering the overwhelming presence of professional middle class persons in post secondary education, another essential instrument in regards to shaping public opinion, it should come as no surprise that the lifestyle exclusive to this quasi-elite has become indicative of the American mainstream itself. In addition to setting trends, the professional middle class also holds occupations which include managerial duties, meaning that middle class professionals spend much of their work-life directing others and conceptualizing the workday for the average worker.^[3] Yet another reason is the economic cloud generated by this class. In 2005, according to US Census statistics, the top third of society, excluding the top 5% controlled the largest share of income in the United States.^[15] Although some in the statistical middle class, (for example, police officers and fire fighters in the more affluent suburbs in the San Francisco Bay Area) may have lifestyle as comfortable as those found among the ranks of the professional middle class, only few have the same degree of autonomy and influence over society as those in the professional middle class.^[3] Other white collar members of the statistical middle class may not only be unable to afford the middle class lifestyle^[9] but also lack the influence found in the professional middle class.^[6]

[edit] Defining attributes

Educational attainment is one of the most important features of the middle class, as it sets the precedent for occupation and the resulting financial compensation. Furthermore, the attainment of academic degrees may be seen as ownership of productive assets.^[13]

Identifying those attributes that are indicative of the middle class is again a difficult endeavor, as one is either forced to define the middle class by the means of lifestyle or using the statistical middle. As the term "middle class" is commonly associated with the professional middle class instead of the statistical middle, one is well advised to look at this particular group. In the United States, class overall is largely defined through income, occupation, and educational attainment. Households in the Professional and Managerial middle class have a relatively wide range of income, ranging from modest incomes for some educators to very high incomes for physicians and lawyers, who may also very well be members of the top 5%. A common attribute is that members of this class have a large amount of autonomy in their work, which tends to be largely self-directed and often includes managerial duties.^[3] While some more affluent members of this class such as physicians, attorneys and psycho-therapists may be self-employed, most members of this class are salaried employees of large organizations. Due to their nature of work however, the opinions, thoughts and ideas of this class' members are influential and are essential to directing the way in which their organization, be it a small consulting firm or the federal government, functions. Yet another difference between the professional middle class and the white collar worker in the statistical middle class is the education of professional middle class persons who most likely possess graduate degrees. Education among members of this class is likely to continue life-long as many professionals and managers publish essays in their professional journals and attend seminars and workshops. The life-long learning is necessary for professionals and managers as their work often includes directing others and visualizing new ideas and concepts.^[3]

As for the statistical middle class, the defining attributes vary with each person's perception of middle class. While the statistical middle class, if defined loosely enough, would include the professional middle class, large parts of it could not afford the lifestyle indicative of the middle class.^[9] Homeownership, the sufficient economic means to afford necessities such as health care including regular dental visits, and some luxuries such as one motor vehicle per licensed driver. While more severe problems such as overcrowding are rare among the statistical middle (80% to 120% of the median), its relatively low educational attainment causes it to be very prone to fluctuations in the economy. Overall job security tends to be relatively low, with the average American changing jobs roughly every two years. Most households in the statistical middle rely on two incomes in order to make ends meet and cannot bear to lose even one income for an extended period of time.^[9]

[edit] Typical occupations

Office buildings such as this are often the place of work for the vast majority of middle class Americans, whether they are upper middle class professional or working class secretaries.

Note that according to the many different ways of sub-dividing the middle class, some of the occupations indicative of the professional middle class might be categorized as upper-middle, true middle, or middle-middle. It is important to remember that there is no accurate economic or sociological definition of what is middle class.^[1]

As mentioned above typical occupations for members of the middle class are those identified as being part of "The professions" and often include managerial duties as well with all being white collar. There is great diversity among the occupations found among those living the middle class lifestyle and the appropriateness of some occupations being placed on this will depend on each individual’s different outlook. The following is a list of occupations one might expect to find among this class:^[3][35] Professors (Post-secondary educators), Journalists, Writers, Engineers, Mid-level corporate managers, Architects, Economists, Political Scientists, Physicians, Lawyers, Urban planners, High-school teachers, Financial managers and analysts, etc... Autonomy is often seen as one of the greatest measurement of person's class status. Even though some working class employees might also enjoy largely self-directed work, large degrees of autonomy in the work place as well as influence over the organizational process, which are commonly the results of obtained expertise, can still be seen as hallmarks of upper middle class or professional middle class professions.^[13]

As for the statistical middle class other less prestigious occupations such as real estate agents, many less-paid sales positions, entry-level management, higher paying blue collar, etc... would be part of the statistical middle class.^[36] In addition to professionals whose work is largely self-directed and includes managerial duties, many other less privileged members of the statistical middle class would find themselves in white collar positions without much influence and with somewhat strict supervision. Many of those in statistical middle class might work in what are called the professional support fields. These fields include occupations such as researchers, dental hygienists, and other clerical work. While the majority of the statistical middle class would have at least some form of college-degree, especially when counting the members of the professional middle class, many would have no degree. As stated above a large proportion of jobs in the statistical middle class, outside of the professions and management would feature relatively low job security. Families often to rely on two incomes to make ends meet.^[9]

[edit] Consumption

An upscale home in Salinas, CA.

The American middle class, at least those living the lifestyle, has become known around the world for conspicuous consumption. To this day, the professional middle class in the United States holds the world record for having the largest homes, most appliances and automobiles. In 2005 the average new home had a square footage of 2,434 square feet (roughly 226 square meters) with 58% of these homes having ceilings with a height in excess of nine feet on the first floor. As new homes only represent a small portion of the housing stock in the US, with most suburban homes having been built in the 1970s when the average square footage was only a mere 1,600,^[37] it is fair to assume that these large new suburban homes will be inhabited by members of the professional middle class. Overall many social critics and intellectuals, most of whom are members of the professional middle class themselves, have commented on the extravagant consumption habits of the professional middle class. It is also often pointed out that the suburban lifestyle of American professional middle class is a major reason for its record consumption. Many members of this class have feared that this consumption will lead to a gradual erosion of moral and ethical values. The increasing materialism, even among such a highly-educated class, is also often claimed to be connected to the notion of rugged individualism which gained popularity among the ranks of the professional middle class in the 1970s and 80s.^[3][35]

[edit] Education

The relevance of education in regards to defining the middle class depends largely on whether one is looking at the statistical middle or just the professional middle class. As the statistical middle class is an extremely vague concept lumping together professionals such as professors and political scientists who hold doctorate degrees with clerical workers who may or may not hold a four-year college degree, the importance and prevalence of higher education varies. Overall persons with four-year college degrees made up a sizable minority of the statistical middle class while the majority had attended college.^[38] Only a small minority had graduate degrees. This contradicts greatly to the role education plays among the professional middle class. Here education is one of the dearest core values with institutions of higher education being a rite of passage for professional middle class youth. Earning a college degree also represents the main entrance hurdle faced by those wishing to rise up into the professional middle class.^[3] As one might imagine a large percentage of professionals and managers have graduate degrees, spending six to eight years in post-secondary education.

[edit] Middle class squeeze

In the 1990s and 2000s, many feared that the spreading wealth gap would lead to a "collapse of the middle" in American society. A modern threat to the statistical middle class is downsizing in many sectors of the American economy, competition from lower-paid foreign workers and contractors, and the systematic elimination of unionized labor. The scenario most commonly reordered currently by the country's top news publications is that the statistical middle is splitting into two, a well-off, high-income middle class -the professional middle class- and a lower-income middle class. The high-income middle class is commonly defined as those out-earning those at the center of society. A change in the income distribution of American cities may serve as an example of the statistical middle class splitting into the well-paid professional and managerial middle class and the statistical middle of society.^[39] In recent years many American cities with home prices near the national median have seen their middle income neighborhoods, those in which the median income is between 80% and 120% of the metropolitan median income, dissolve with the more affluent members of the professional middle class leaving for newer developments in more exclusive suburbs.^[39] In more expensive areas such as in California and Hawaii, many former middle income neighborhoods have now become upper-middle professional middle class neighborhoods with the statistical middle class and those below the median being displaced. Thus many American cities have become more segregated between the professional and managerial middle class living the iconic middle class lifestyle and the statistical middle of American society which has either been displaced or left behind in the former statistical middle income neighborhoods.^[39] This middle class squeeze has made the divide between the statistical middle, those who are neither rich nor poor, and the professional middle class starker as the median income has overall decreased despite an increase among the top two quintiles.^[40]

[edit] Academic models

Class in the US, featuring occupational descriptions by Thompson & Hickey, as well as US Census Bureau data pertaining to personal income and educational attainment for those age 25 or older.^[2][41][24]

As a many, even a majority according to some polls, identify themselves as middle class, the need for subdivisions has arisen. While to conceptualize dividing the middle class into three subsections, the upper middle, middle-middle and lower middle remains popular, sociologists such as Dennis Gilbert of Cornell University contend with dividing the middle class into two groups. In such class models the middle class is divided into an upper middle and lower middle class, while those otherwise labeled as lower middle class are identified as working class. At the upper end of the middle class one finds white collar professionals with graduate degrees who are commonly among the top 15% of income earners ($62,500 or more in 2005). As a result of marriage these individuals commonly reside in households with six figure incomes. The middle class also includes semi-professionals with Bachelor’s degrees as well as other white collar workers who may have some college education at the lower end.^[4]

[edit] Gilbert & Kahl

In The American Class Structure, 6th edition (Wadsworth 2002) as well the preceding 5th edition, Dennis Gilbert lays out an even more precise breakdown of American social classes. Dennis Gilbert stresses that "there is really no way to establish that a particular model is 'true' and another 'false.'" He states that his model emphasizes sources of income and that household income, being very dependent on the number of income earners, varies greatly within each social class. The class descriptions in quotes below are lifted from the 5th edition, pages 284 and 285.^[42]

• Capitalist class; (ca. 1%) "Subdivided into nationals and locals, whose income is derived largely from return on assets." Yet is should be noted that the top 1.5% of households made $250,000 or more with only 146,000, 0.01% of households having incomes of $1,600,000 or more.^[42]
• Upper middle class; (ca. 14%) "...college trained professionals and managers (a few of whom ascend to such heights of bureaucratic dominance or accumulated wealth that they become part of the capitalist class)." Educational attainment is the main feature of this class. They enjoy great job autonomy and economic security. Household incomes vary greatly depending of the number of income earners."^[42] Considering US Census Bureau According to the 2005 Economic Survey, the top 15% of income earners made $62,500 or more with the top 15% of households having six figure incomes.^[41][43]
• Middle class; (ca. 30%) "...members have significant skills and preform varied tasls at work, under loose supervision. They earn enough to afford a comfortable, mainstream lifestyle. Most wear white collars, but some wear blue."^[12] In 2005 incomes for this group would have ranged from $50,000 to $90,000 for households and $27,500 to $52,500 for individuals.^[41][43]
• Working class; (ca. 30%) "People who are less skilled than members of the middle class and work at highly routinized, closely supervised,manual and clerical jobs. Their work provides them with a relatively stable income sufficient to maintain a living standard just below the mainstream."^[12] Incomes in 2005 would have ranged from $10,000 to $27,500 for individuals and $20,000 to $50,000 for households.^[41][43]
• Working poor; (ca. 13%) "...people employed in low-skill jobs, often at marginal firms. The members of this class are typically laborers, service workers, or low-paid operators. Their incomes leave them wee below mainstream living standards. Moreover, they cannot depend on steady employment."^[42] In 2004 the bottom 12.2% of households made less than $12,500.^[43]
• Underclass (ca. 12%) "...members have limited participation in the labor force and do not have wealth to fall back on. Many depend on government transfers." The average household income is $12,000 a year, and the class makes up 12% of the population.

[edit] Thompson & Hickey

In their 2005 sociology textbook, Society in Focus, sociologists William Thompson and Joseph Hickey present a five class model in which the middle class is divided into two sections and the term working class is applied to clerical and pink collar workers. Their class system goes as follows:^[2] Sociologist Dennis Gilbert at Cornell University has proposed a similar class system with nearly identical class characteristics.^[4]

• Upper class, (ca. 1%-5%) individuals with considerable power over the nation's economic and political institutions. This group owns sizable share of the nation's resources. The top 1% had incomes exceeding $250,000 with the top 5% having household incomes exceeding $140,000. This group features strong group solidarity and is largely constituted by the heirs to multi-generational fortunes. Prominent government officials, corporate chief executive officers, and successful entrepreneurs are among the upper class even if not of elite background.^[2]
• Upper middle class, (ca. 15%) white collar professionals with advanced post-secondary education such as physicians, professors, lawyers, corporate executives, and other management. While households commonly have six figure incomes in this group, some one income earner households and lesser paid professionals may not. While, high educational attainment commonly serves as staple mark of this group, entrepreneurs and business owners may also be upper middle class even if lacking advanced educational attainment.^[2][4]
• Lower middle class, (ca. 33%) individuals who worked their way through college and commonly have a Bachelor's degree or some college education. School teachers, sales-employees and lower to mid level supervisors rank among those in this particular group. Household income is general in the range of $30,000 to $75,000. Workers in this group are mostly white collar but have less autonomy in their work than do upper middle class professionals. Members of this class often attempt to emulate those in the two higher classes and have recently become overly indebted by their desire to have a comfortable lifestyle.^[2]
• Working class, (ca. 30%) individuals who occupy both blue and white collar occupations. Pink collar workers in predominantly female clerical positions are common in this class. Job security tends to be low for this group and unemployment as well as losing health insurance remains potent economic threats. Household incomes typically range from $16,000 to $30,000.^[2]
• Lower class, repeated cycles of unemployment, working multiple low-level part-time jobs are common among this group. Many families fall below the poverty line from time to time when employment opportunities are scarce.^[2]

[edit] See also

• Social class

[edit] US related articles

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[edit] References

1. ^ ^{a b c d e} Middle class according to The Drum Major Institute for public policy. Retrieved on July 25, 2006.
2. ^ ^{a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t} Thompson, William; Joseph Hickey (2005). Society in Focus. Boston, MA: Pearson. 0-205-41365-X. 
3. ^ ^{a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t} Ehrenreich, Barbara (1989). Fear of Falling, The Inner Life of the Middle Class. New York, NY: Harper Collins. 0-06-0973331. 
4. ^ ^{a b c d e f g h i j k l} Gilbert, Dennis (1997). American Class Structure in an Age of Growing Inequality. Wadsworth. 978-0534505202. 
5. ^ ^{a b c d e f} Williams, Brian; Stacey C. Sawyer, Carl M. Wahlstrom (2005). Marriages, Families & Intimate Relationships. Boston, MA: Pearson. 0-205-36674-0. 
6. ^ ^{a b c d e f} Fussel, Paul (1983). Class, A Guide through the American status system. New York, NY: Touchstone. 0-671-79225-3. 
7. ^ The Drum Major Institute with one perspective on the middle class. Retrieved on September 11, 2006.
8. ^ Christian Science Monitor on What is Middle Class. Retrieved on September 11, 2006.
9. ^ ^{a b c d e f g h} Middle income can't buy Middle class lifestyle. Retrieved on July 25, 2006.
10. ^ US Census Bureau, income quintilea and Top 5 Percent, 2004. Retrieved on July 8, 2006.
11. ^ ^{a b} Washington Post on the Middle class squeeze. Retrieved on July 25, 2006.
12. ^ ^{a b c} Gilbert, Dennis (1998). The American Class Strucutre. New York: Wadsworth Publishing. 0-534-50520-1. 
13. ^ ^{a b c d e} Eichar, Douglas (1989). Occupation and Class Consciousness in America. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press. 0-313-26111-3. 
14. ^ ^{a b c} US Census Bureau, personal income by education. Retrieved on October 17, 2006.
15. ^ ^{a b c d} US Census 2005 Economic Survey, income data. Retrieved on June 29, 2006.
16. ^ Education resource information center, Effects of Social Class and Interactive Setting on Maternal Speech. Retrieved on January 27, 2007.
17. ^ Zweig, Michael (2004). What's Class Got To Do With It, American Society in the Twenty-First Century. New York, NY: Cornell University Press. 0-8014-8899-0. 
18. ^ US Census Bureau, income quintile and top 5% household income distribution and demographic characteristics, 2006.
19. ^ ^{a b} US Census Bureau, distribution of personal income, 2006. Retrieved on December 9, 2006.
20. ^ List of Professions and their attributes, US Department of Labor. Retrieved on September 16, 2006.
21. ^ Median household income by size of household, US Census Bureau. Retrieved on September 16, 2006.
22. ^ Income of economists, US Department of Labor. Retrieved on September 16, 2006.
23. ^ ^{a b} Household income according to the educational attainment of householder. Retrieved on September 16, 2006.
24. ^ ^{a b} US Census Bureau report on educational attainment in the United States, 2003. Retrieved on July 31, 2006.
25. ^ ^{a b} Vanneman, Reeve; Lynn Weber Cannon (1988). The American Perception of Class. New York, NY: Temple University Press. 0877225931. 
26. ^ ^{a b c} Levine, Rhonda (1998). Social Class and Stratification. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield. 0-8476-8543-8. 
27. ^ Income and nature of work of dentists. Retrieved on September 13, 2006.
28. ^ Income and nature of work of dental hygienists. Retrieved on September 13, 2006.
29. ^ ^{a b} US Census Bureau, overall income distribution among households. Retrieved on October 3, 2006.
30. ^ US Census Bureau, personal income distribution by educational attainment and gender. Retrieved on October 3, 2006.
31. ^ US Census Bureau, Income distribution by the number of income earners. Retrieved on October 3, 2006.
32. ^ ^{a b} US Census Bureau, Income earners by quintile. Retrieved on October 25, 2006.
33. ^ US Department of Labor, registered nurses. Retrieved on October 25, 2006.
34. ^ US Department of Labor, Median income of lawyers. Retrieved on October 25, 2006.
35. ^ ^{a b} Professional Occupations according to the US Department of Labor. Retrieved on July 26, 2006.
36. ^ New York Times, guidelines for determining class in America. Retrieved on July 28, 2006.
37. ^ Realty Times, the increasing size of American homes. Retrieved on July 26, 2006.
38. ^ US Census Bureau, Educational attainment in the United States, 2000 Census. Retrieved on July 30, 2006.
39. ^ ^{a b c} Washington Post, America is losing its middle income neighborhoods. Retrieved on July 25, 2006.
40. ^ Washington Post, Income gap widenes. Retrieved on July 26, 2006.
41. ^ ^{a b c d} US Census Bureau, personal income distribution, age 25+, 2006. Retrieved on December 28, 2006.
42. ^ ^{a b c d} Gilbert, Dennis (1998). The American Class Structure. New York: Wadsworth Publishing. 0-534-50520-1. 
43. ^ ^{a b c d} US Census Bureau, overall household income distribution, 2006. Retrieved on December 28, 2006.

[edit] External links

• What's (Not) the Matter With the Middle Class?, The American Prospect
• Lou Dobbs discusses "The War on the Middle Class" on 10/17/2006
• A SUPERPOWER IN DECLINE: America's Middle Class Has Become Globalization's Loser by Gabor Steingart (spiegel online) October 24, 2006
• American Middle Class: Endangered Species by Pete Fisher (newmediajournal.us) March 1, 2006