Active Directory

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Active Directory is an implementation of LDAP directory services by Microsoft for use in Windows environments. Active Directory allows administrators to assign enterprise-wide policies, deploy programs to many computers, and apply critical updates to an entire organization. An Active Directory stores information and settings relating to an organization in a central, organized, accessible database. Active Directory networks can vary from a small installation with a few hundred objects, to a large installation with millions of objects.

Active Directory was previewed in 1996, released first with Windows 2000 Server edition, and revised to extend functionality and improve administration in Windows Server 2003.

Active Directory was called NTDS (NT Directory Service) in older Microsoft documents. This name remains in some AD binaries as well.

Contents 1 Structure 1.1 Objects 1.2 Forests, trees, and domains 1.3 Physical structure and replication 2 Naming 3 Trust 3.1 Trusts in Windows 2000 (native mode) 4 ADAM 5 Alternatives 6 See also 7 Notes 8 External links

[edit] Structure

[edit] Objects

Active Directory is a directory service used to store information about the network resources across a domain.

An Active Directory (AD) structure is a hierarchical framework of objects. The objects fall into three broad categories: resources (e.g. printers), services (e.g. e-mail) and users (accounts, or users and groups). The AD provides information on the objects, organizes the objects, controls access and sets security.

Each object represents a single entity — whether a user, a computer, a printer, an application or a shared data source — and its attributes. Objects can also be containers of other objects. An object is uniquely identified by its name and has a set of attributes — the characteristics and information that the object can contain — defined by a schema, which also determines the kind of objects that can be stored in the AD.

Each attribute object can be used in several different schema class objects. These schema objects exist to allow the schema to be extended or modified when necessary. However, because each schema object is integral to the definition of AD objects, deactivating or changing these objects can have serious consequences because it will fundamentally change the structure of AD itself. A schema object, when altered, will automatically propagate through Active Directory and once it is created it can only be deactivated — not deleted. Changing the schema usually requires a fair amount of planning.^[1]

[edit] Forests, trees, and domains

The framework that holds the objects is viewed at a number of levels. At the top of the structure is the Forest - the collection of every object, its attributes and rules (attribute syntax) in the AD. The forest holds one or more transitive, trust-linked Trees. A tree holds one or more Domain and domain trees, again linked in a transitive trust hierarchy. Domains are identified by their DNS name structure, the namespace. A domain has a single DNS name.

The objects held within a domain can be grouped into containers called Organizational Units (OUs). OUs give a domain a hierarchy, ease its administration, and can give a semblance of the structure of the AD's company in organizational or geographical terms. OUs can contain OUs - indeed, domains are containers in this sense - and can hold multiple nested OUs. Microsoft recommends as few domains as possible in AD and a reliance on OUs to produce structure and improve the implementation of policies and administration. The OU is the common level at which to apply group policies, which are AD objects themselves called Group Policy Objects (GPOs), although policies can also be applied to domains or sites (see below). The OU is the level at which administrative powers are commonly delegated, but granular delegation can be performed on individual objects or attributes as well.

As a further subdivision AD supports the creation of Sites, which are physical, rather than logical, groupings defined by one or more IP subnets. Sites distinguish between locations connected by low-speed (e.g. WAN, VPN) and high-speed (e.g. LAN) connections. Sites can contain one or more domains and domains can contain one or more sites. This is important to control network traffic generated by replication and to refer clients to the nearest domain controllers.

The actual division of the company's information infrastructure into a hierarchy of one or more domains and top-level OUs is a key decision. Common models are by business, by geographical location, or by IT roles. These models are also often used in combination, but Microsoft recommends that OUs be structured to facilitate administrative delegation and group policy application..

[edit] Physical structure and replication

Physically the AD information is held on one or more equal peer domain controllers (DCs), replacing the NT PDC/BDC format (although there is a 'more equal' flexible single master operation (FSMO) server for some operations, which can simulate a PDC). Each DC holds a single domain partition and a read-and-write copy of the AD; changes on one computer being synchronized (converged) between all the DC computers by multi-master replication. Servers joined in to AD, which are not domain controllers, are called Member Servers.

Unlike earlier versions of Windows which used NetBIOS to communicate, Active Directory is fully integrated with DNS and TCP/IP — indeed DNS is required. To be fully functional, the DNS server must support SRV resource records or service records.

AD replication is 'pull' rather than 'push'. The Knowledge Consistency Checker (KCC) creates a replication topology of site links using the defined sites to manage traffic. Intrasite replication is frequent and automatic as a result of change notification, which triggers peers to begin a pull replication cycle. Intersite replication intervals are less frequent and do not use change notification, although this is configurable and can be made identical to intrasite replication. A different 'cost' can be given to each link (e.g. DS3, T1, ISDN etc.) and the site link topology will be altered accordingly by the KCC. Replication between domain controllers may occur transitively through several site links on same-protocol site link bridges, if the 'cost' is low, although KCC automatically costs a direct site-to-site link lower than transitive connections. Site-to-site replication can be configured to occur between a bridgehead server in each site, which then replicates the changes to other DCs within the site.

In a multi-domain forest the AD database becomes partitioned. That is, each domain maintains a list of only those objects that belong in that domain. So, for example, a user created in Domain A would be listed only in Domain A's domain controllers. Global catalog (GC) servers are used to provide a global listing of all objects in the Forest. The Global catalog is held on domain controllers configured as global catalog servers. Global Catalog servers replicate to themselves all objects from all domains and hence, provide a global listing of objects in the forest. However, in order to minimize replication traffic and to keep the GC's database small, only selected attributes of each object are replicated. This is called the partial attribute set (PAS). The PAS can be modified by modifying the schema and marking attributes for replication to the GC.

Replication of Active Directory uses RPCs (Remote Procedure Calls). Between Sites you can also choose to use SMTP for replication, but only for changes in the Schema or Configuration. SMTP cannot be used for replicating the Domain partition. In other words, if a domain exists on both sides of a WAN connection, you must use RPCs for replication.

The AD is split into three different stores or partitions. Microsoft often refers to these partitions as 'naming contexts'. The 'Schema' partition contains the definition of object classes and attributes within the Forest. The 'Configuration' partition, contains information on the structure of the forest. The 'Domain' partition holds all objects created in that domain. The first two partitions replicate to all domain controllers in the Forest. The Domain partition replicates only to Domain Controllers within its domain. A Partial Attribute Set (PAS) of all objects also replicates to the global catalog.

The AD database, the directory store, in Windows 2000 uses the JET Blue-based Extensible Storage Engine (ESE98), limited to 16 terabytes and 1 billion objects in each domain controller's database (a theoretical limit, only 100 million or so have been tested. NT4's Security Account Manager could support no more than 40,000 objects). Called NTDS.DIT, it has two main tables: the data table and the link table. In Windows 2003 a third main table was added for security descriptor single instancing.

[edit] Naming

AD supports UNC (\), URL (/), and LDAP URL names for object access. AD internally uses the LDAP version of the X.500 naming structure.

Every object has a Distinguished name (DN), so a printer object called HPLaser3 in the OU Marketing and the domain foo.org, would have the DN: CN=HPLaser3,OU=Marketing,DC=foo,DC=org where CN is common name and DC is domain object class, DNs can have many more than four parts. The object can also have a Canonical name, essentially the DN in reverse, without identifiers, and using slashes: foo.org/Marketing/HPLaser3. To identify the object within its container the Relative distinguished name (RDN) is used: CN=HPLaser3. Each object also has a Globally Unique Identifier (GUID), a unique and unchanging 128-bit string which is used by AD for search and replication. Certain objects also have a User principal name (UPN), an objectname@domain name form.

[edit] Trust

To allow users in one domain to access resources in another, AD uses trust. Trust is automatically produced when domains are created. The forest sets the default boundaries of trust, not the domain, and implicit trust is automatic. As well as two-way transitive trust, AD trusts can be shortcut (joins two domains in different trees, transitive, one- or two-way), forest (transitive, one- or two-way), realm (transitive or nontransitive, one- or two-way), or external (nontransitive, one- or two-way) in order to connect to other forests or non-AD domains. AD uses the Kerberos V5 protocol, although NTLM is also supported and web clients use SSL/TLS.

[edit] Trusts in Windows 2000 (native mode)

• One way trust - When one domain allows access to users on another domain, but the other domain does not allow access to users on the first domain.
• '''Two way trust''' - When two domains allow access to users on the other domain.
• Trusting domain - The domain that allows access to users on another domain.
• Trusted domain - The domain that is trusted; whose users have access to the trusting domain.
• Transitive trust - A trust that can extend beyond two domains to other trusted domains in the tree.
• Intransitive trust - A one way trust that does not extend beyond two domains.
• Explicit trust - A trust that an admin creates. It is not transitive and is one way only.
• Cross link trust - An explicit trust between domains in different trees or in the same tree when a descendent/ancestor (child/parent) relationship does not exist between the two domains.

Windows 2000 - supports the following types of trusts:

• Two way transitive trusts.
• One way non transitive trusts.

Additional trusts can be created by administrators. These trusts can be:

• Shortcut

[edit] ADAM

Active Directory Application Mode (ADAM) is a light-weight implementation of Active Directory. ADAM is capable of running as a simple user service. Due to its small resource requirements, multiple ADAM instances are able to run on the same server. The API is identical to that of a full-blown Active Directory implementation, so developers do not need to learn new skills to utilize it. Active Directory and ADAM share the same code base, so performance of ADAM is nearly identical to Active Directory when comparing like operations.

[edit] Alternatives

Amongst the numerous features of version 3 of the Samba free software, a Windows NT4 domain controller is available. Active Directory domain controller support is slated for version 4.

The free software Linbox Directory Server, offers a Web-interface to manage the Samba domain controller and the LDAP directory service.

Alternatives are the Sun Java ES Directory Server, Novell eDirectory server, and Fedora Directory Server.

OpenDS is in development as an open source alternative to Active Directory and other LDAP servers.

Centrify is a commercial vendor that has several products that integrate with Active Directory. The Direct Control product secures your non-Microsoft platforms (support for over 60+ flavors of UNIX, Linux and Mac) and applications (web and database servers) using the same authentication, authorization and Group Policy services deployed for your Windows environment.

[edit] See also

• Group Policy
• Novell eDirectory
• Flexible single master operation
• Directory Services Restore Mode
• ActiveX (Active Directory is part of the "ActiveX" strategy, including "Active Platform", "Active Messaging", Active Server Pages, ActiveX Data Objects, Active Desktop, ActiveMovie, etc.)

[edit] Notes

[edit] External links

• Microsoft's Active Directory Page
• SRV records
• Distributed Management Task Force
• ActiveDir.org
• Active Directory on Linux
• Linbox Directory Server
• Active Directory Maintenance page