1906 San Francisco earthquake
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The San Francisco earthquake of 1906 was a major earthquake that struck San Francisco and the coast of northern California at 5:12 A.M. on Wednesday, April 18, 1906. The most widely accepted estimate for the magnitude of the earthquake is a moment magnitude (Mw) of 7.8; however, other values have been proposed from 7.7 to as high as 8.3.[1] The mainshock epicenter occurred offshore about 2 miles (3 km) from the city, near Mussel Rock. It ruptured along the San Andreas Fault both northward and southward for a total length of 296 miles (477 km).[2] Shaking was felt from Oregon to Los Angeles, and inland as far as central Nevada. The earthquake and resulting fire is remembered as one of the worst natural disasters in the history of the United States. The toll from the earthquake and resulting fire represents the greatest loss of life from a natural disaster in California's history.
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[edit] Impact
At the time, only 375 deaths were reported;[3] the figure was concocted by government officials who felt that reporting the true death toll would hurt real estate prices and efforts to rebuild the city. Also, hundreds of casualties in Chinatown went ignored and unrecorded due to racism at the time. Today, this figure has been revised to an estimate of at least 3,000.[4] Most of the deaths occurred in San Francisco itself, but 189 were reported elsewhere across the San Francisco Bay Area. Other places in the Bay Area such as Santa Rosa, San Jose, and Stanford University also suffered severe damage.
Between 225,000 and 300,000 people were left homeless out of a population of about 410,000; half of the refugees fled across the bay to Oakland and Berkeley. Newspapers at the time described Golden Gate Park, the Presidio, the Panhandle, and the beaches between Ingleside and North Beach being covered with makeshift tents. Over two years later in 1908, many of these refugee camps were still in full operation. [5]
The earthquake and fire would leave a long-standing and significant impression on the development of California. At the time of the disaster, San Francisco had been the ninth-largest city in the United States and the largest on the West Coast, with a population of about 410,000. Over a period of 60 years, the city had become the financial, trade and cultural center of the West; operated the busiest port on the West Coast; and was the "gateway to the Pacific", through which growing US economic and military power was projected into the Pacific and Asia. Over 80% of the city was destroyed by the earthquake and fire. Though San Francisco would rebuild quickly, the disaster would divert trade, industry and population growth south to Los Angeles, which during the 20th century would become the largest and most important urban area in the West. In addition, many of the city's leading poets and writers retreated to Carmel-by-the-Sea where, as "The Bohemians", they established the arts colony reputation that continues today.
The destruction of various public buildings housing citizenship records enabled many non-citizen Chinese residents to claim citizenship by virtue of their supposed birth records that had been lost during the disaster, creating a backdoor to the Chinese Exclusion Act and allowing for an influx of immigration.[6][7]
The 1908 Lawson Report, a study of the 1906 quake led and edited by Professor Andrew Lawson of the University of California, showed that the very same San Andreas Fault which had caused the disaster in San Francisco ran close to Los Angeles as well. The earthquake was the first natural disaster of its magnitude to be documented by photography and motion picture footage. Furthermore, it occurred at a time when the science of seismology was blossoming. The overall cost of the damage from the earthquake was estimated at the time to be around $400 million ($6.5 billion in 2006 dollars).
[edit] Geology
The 1906 San Francisco earthquake was caused by a rupture on the San Andreas Fault. This fault runs the length of California from the Salton Sea in the south to Cape Mendocino to the north, a distance of about 800 miles (1287 km). The earthquake ruptured the northern third of the fault for a distance of 296 miles (477 km). The maximum observed surface displacement was about 20 feet (6 m); however, geodetic measurements show displacements of up to 28 feet (8.5 m).[8]
A strong foreshock preceded the mainshock by about 20 to 25 seconds. The strong shaking of the mainshock lasted about 48 seconds. The shaking intensity as described on the Modified Mercalli Intensity Scale reached VIII in San Francisco and up to IX in areas to the north like Santa Rosa where destruction was almost complete.
[edit] Subsequent fires
As damaging as the earthquake and its aftershocks were, the fires that burned out of control afterward were much more destructive. It has been estimated that as much as 90% of the total destruction was a result from the subsequent fires, although that figure is probably greatly exaggerated. Due to the nearly universal practice of insurers to protect San Francisco properties from fire but not earthquake damage, most damage through the city was blamed on the fires. It is probable, due to the extreme magnitude of the earthquake and the poor buildings standards of the time, that a majority of structures destroyed that day were initially destroyed from the movement of the earth before succumbing to fire. Fires broke out in many parts of town, some initially fueled by natural gas mains broken by the quake. Other fires were the result of arson and campfires set by refugees. The fires lasted for four days and nights. Some property owners set fire to their damaged buildings because most insurance policies covered fire losses while prohibiting payment if the building had only sustained earthquake damage. Captain Leonard D. Wildman of the U.S. Army Signal Corps [4] reported that he "was stopped by a fireman who told me that people in that neighborhood were firing their houses... They were told that they would not get their insurance on buildings damaged by the earthquake unless they were damaged by fire."[5]
As water mains were also broken, the city fire department had few resources with which to fight the fires. Several fires in the downtown area merged to become one giant inferno. One journalist at the time wrote that readers elsewhere should understand that it was not a fire in San Francisco, but rather a fire of San Francisco. The fire ultimately destroyed over 500 city blocks of the downtown core from Van Ness Avenue, an arterial thoroughfare that bisects the center of the city, to the docks on San Francisco Bay. It was erroneously reported that Mayor Eugene Schmitz and General Frederick Funston declared martial law. Schmitz did, however, issue an edict allowing police, vigilante patrols, and military troops to shoot looters on sight, and some 500 people were shot and killed. Funston tried to bring the fire under control by detonating blocks of buildings around the fire to create firebreaks with all sorts of means ranging from black powder and dynamite to even artillery barrages. Often the explosions set the ruins on fire or helped spread it. Despite its shortcomings, it did eventually prove effective in stopping the fire from spreading westward to the remaining half of the city.
Some of the greatest losses from fire were in scientific laboratories. Alice Eastwood, the Curator of Botany at the California Academy of Sciences in San Francisco, is credited with saving nearly 1500 specimens, including the entire type specimen collection for a newly discovered and extremely rare species, before the remainder of the largest botanical collection in the western United States was consumed by fire.[9][10] The entire laboratory and all the records of Benjamin R. Jacobs, a biochemist who was researching the nutrition of everyday foods, was lost.[6]
[edit] The army's role in the aftermath
The city fire chief sent an urgent request to the Presidio, an Army post on the edge of the stricken city, for dynamite. Brigadier General Frederick Funston, commanding the Department of California and a resident of San Francisco, had already decided the situation required the use of troops. Collaring a policeman, he sent word to Mayor Schmitz of his decision to assist, and then ordered Army troops from as far away as Angel Island to mobilize and come into the City, started ferrying expolsives across the Bay from the California Powder Works in what is now Hercules, and began coordinating with civil authorities. Martial law was never declared, however, and troops took guidance from the City's civilian administrators.[11]
During the first few days soldiers provided valuable services patrolling streets to discourage looting and guarding buildings such as the U.S. Mint, post office, and county jail. They aided the fire department in dynamiting to demolish buildings in the path of the fires. The Army also became responsible for feeding, sheltering, and clothing the tens of thousands of displaced residents of the city. This support prompted many citizens to exclaim, "Thank God for the soldiers!" Under the command of Major General Adolphus Greely, Commanding Officer, Pacific Division, Funston's superior, over 4,000 troops saw service during the emergency. On July 1, 1906 civil authorities assumed responsibility for relief efforts, and the Army withdrew from the city.
On April 18, Mayor Schmitz issued a proclamation in response to riots among refugees and looting, "regular Police Force and all Special Police Officers have been authorized by (him) to KILL any and all persons found engaged in Looting or in the Commission of Any Other Crime." It is estimated that as many 500 people were shot dead in the city, many of whom, it has been suggested, were not looting at all, but were attempting to save their own possessions from the advancing fire.[12]
[edit] Relocation and housing of displaced
The Army built 5,610 redwood and fir "relief houses" to accommodate 20,000 displaced people. The houses were designed by John McLaren, and were grouped in eleven camps, packed close to each other and rented to people for two dollars per month until rebuilding was completed. They were painted olive drab, partly to blend in with the site, and partly because the military had large quantities of olive drab paint on hand. The camps had a peak population of 16,448 people, but by 1907 most people had moved out. The camps were then re-used as garages, storage spaces or shops. The cottages cost on average $100-741 to put up. Families would rent cottages for $2 a month. which went towards the full purchase price of $50. The cottages that are still around are now worth on average $500,000.[citation needed]
[edit] Aftermath and reconstruction
Property losses from the disaster have been estimated to be more than $400 million.[13] An insurance industry source tallies insured losses at $235 million (equivalent to $4.9 billion in 2005 dollars)[14]
Political and business leaders strongly downplayed the effects of the earthquake fearing loss of outside investment in the city. In his first public statement, California governor George C. Pardee emphasized the need to rebuild quickly: "this is not the first time that San Francisco has been destroyed by fire, I have not the slightest doubt that the City by the Golden Gate will be speedily rebuilt, and will, almost before we know it, resume her former great activity."[7] The earthquake itself is not even mentioned in the statement. Fatality and monetary damage estimates were manipulated.[citation needed] In one of the most blatant attempt to cover up the realities of the earthquake, one of the photographs circulated around the country has been shown by forensic image analyst George Reid to have been altered as much as 30% to downplay the damage.[citation needed]
In the rush to rebuild the city building standards were in fact lowered instead of strengthened "by upwards of 50%" according to historian Robert Hansen. Part of the rush to rebuild was the desire to be ready for an international exposition set to be hosted in 1915, and indeed by that year there was almost no visible damage to be seen in the city. The total disregard to earthquake safety plagues the city today as a majority of buildings standing in the city today were built in the first half of the 20th century. Incredibly, it has been suggested that building standards did not reach even 1906 levels until the 1950s. A detailed analysis of the city today estimates that an earthquake even less powerful than the 1906 quake would completely destroy many sections of the city and result in thousands of deaths.
Almost immediately after the quake (and even during the disaster), planning and reconstruction plans were hatched to quickly rebuild the city. One of the more famous and ambitious plans came from famed urban planner Daniel Burnham. His bold plan called for, among other proposals, Haussmann-style avenues, boulevards, arterial thoroughfares that radiated across the city, a massive civic center complex with classical structures, and what would have been the largest urban park in the world, stretching from Twin Peaks to Lake Merced with a large atheneum at its peak. But this plan was dismissed at the time as impractical and unrealistic. For example, real estate investors and other land owners were against the idea due to the large amount of land the city would have to purchase to realize such proposals.
While the original street grid was restored, many of Burnham's proposals inadvertently saw the light of day, such as a neoclassical civic center complex, wider streets, a preference of arterial thoroughfares, a subway under Market Street, a more people-friendly Fisherman's Wharf, and a monument to the city on Telegraph Hill, Coit Tower. Furthermore, plans to move Chinatown and the poor away from the city center failed, as Chinatown was rebuilt in the newer, modern, Western form that exists today. In fact, the destruction of City Hall and the Hall of Records enabled thousands of Chinese immigrants to claim residency and citizenship, and bring in their relatives from China.
The earthquake was also responsible for the development of the Pacific Heights neighborhood. The immense power of the earthquake had destroyed almost all of the mansions on Nob Hill except for the Flood Mansion. As a result, the wealthy looked westward where the land was cheap and relatively undeveloped, and where there were better views and a consistently warmer climate. In the years after the war, the "money" on Nob Hill migrated to Pacific Heights, where it has remained to this day.
Reconstruction was swift, and largely completed by 1915, in time for the Panama-Pacific Exposition which celebrated the reconstruction of the city and its "rise from the ashes".
Since 1915, the city has officially commemorated the disaster each year by gathering the remaining survivors at Lotta's Fountain, a fountain in the city's financial district that served as a meeting point during the disaster for people to look for loved ones and exchange information.
[edit] International Response and Monetary Assistance
During the first few days after the news of the disaster had reached the rest of the world, relief efforts had reached over $5,000,000. London, England, had raised hundreds of thousands of dollars. Individual citizens and businesses donated large sums of money for the relief effort: Standard Oil gave $100,000; Andrew Carnegie gave $100,000; the Dominion of Canada made a special appropriation of $100,000 and even the Bank of Canada in Toronto, Ontario gave $25,000. The US government immediately voted one million dollars in supplies which were immediately rushed to the area. (Charles Morris ed.)
Insurance companies, faced with staggering claims of $235 million (equivalent to $4.9 billion in 2005 dollars), paid out $180 million on policyholders' claims, chiefly for fire damage, since shake damage from earthquakes was excluded from coverage under most policies.[15] One company alone, Lloyds of London, paid more than $50 million in claims (more than $1 billion in 2005 dollars), famously telling its agents to pay all policyholder claims without quibble.[16]
[edit] Centennial commemorations
The 1906 Centennial Alliance was set up as a clearing-house for various centennial events commemorating the earthquake. Award presentations, religious services, a National Geographic TV movie, a projection of fire onto the Coit Tower, memorials, and lectures to be held or have already been held. The USGS Earthquake Hazards Program issued a series of Internet documents, and the tourism industry promoted the 100th anniversary as well.
[edit] Analysis
For a number of years, the epicenter of the quake was assumed to be near the town of Olema, in the Point Reyes area of Marin County, because of evidence of the degree of local earth displacement. In the 1960s, a seismologist at UC Berkeley proposed that the epicenter was more likely offshore of San Francisco, to the northwest of the Golden Gate. However, the most recent analysis by the United States Geological Survey (USGS) shows that the most likely epicenter was very near Mussel Rock on the coast of Daly City, an adjacent suburb just south of San Francisco [8].
The most important characteristic of the shaking intensity noted in Lawson's (1908) report was the clear correlation of intensity with underlying geologic conditions. Areas situated in sediment-filled valleys sustained stronger shaking than nearby bedrock sites, and the strongest shaking occurred in areas where ground reclaimed from San Francisco Bay failed in the earthquake (earthquake liquefaction). Modern seismic-zonation practice accounts for the differences in seismic hazard posed by varying geologic conditions.
An analysis of the displacements and strain in the surrounding crust led Reid (1910) to formulate his elastic-rebound theory of the earthquake source, which remains today the principal model of the earthquake cycle.
The USGS estimates that the earthquake measured a powerful 7.9 on the moment magnitude scale. The earthquake caused ruptures visible on the surface for a length of 470 kilometers (290 miles). Modified Mercalli Intensities of VII to IX paralleled the length of the rupture, extending as far as 80 kilometers inland from the fault trace.
[edit] See also
- Earthquake weather
- Historic pictures of 1906 San Francisco earthquake
- George R. Lawrence - photographer
- Amadeo Giannini - banker, founder of the Bank of America
- Arnold Genthe - one of the famous photographers of the 1906 earthquake
- Andrew Lawson - editor of the 1908 report on the 1906 quake; discovered and named the San Andreas Fault in 1895
- Loma Prieta earthquake - a strong, though lesser magnitude earthquake that caused damage in parts of the Bay Area in 1989.
[edit] Notes
- ^ 1906 Earthquake: What was the magnitude?USGS Earthquake Hazards Program - Northern California, Accessed September 3, 2006
- ^ 1906 Earthquake: How long was the 1906 Crack?USGS Earthquake Hazards Program - Northern California, Accessed September 3, 2006
- ^ William Bronson, The Earth Shook, The Sky Burned (San Francisco:Chroncile Books, 1996)
- ^ Casualties and Damage after the 1906 earthquake USGS Earthquake Hazards Program - Northern California, Accessed September 3, 2006
- ^ displays at the US Army Corps of Engineers Museum in Sausalito, CA
- ^ Great Earthquake and Fire of 1906: Its Effects on Chinatown Chinese Historical Society of America, Accessed December 2, 2006
- ^ The Great 1906 San Francisco Earthquake and Fire Niderost, Eric, American History, April 2006, Accessed December 2, 2006
- ^ 1906 San Francisco Quake: How large was the offset?USGS Earthquake Hazards Program - Northern California, Accessed September 3, 2006
- ^ Alice Eastwood, The Coniferae of the Santa Lucia Mountains
- ^ Double Cone Quarterly, Fall Equinox, volume VII, Number 3 (2004)
- ^ How the Army Worked to Save San Francisco, by Brigadier General Frederick Funston (U.S.A.). Cosmoplotian Magazine, July 1906. Retrieved on March 29, 2007.
- ^ Mayor Eugene Schmitz' Famed "Shoot-to-Kill" Order. Virtual Museum of the City of San Francisco. Retrieved on September 3, 2006.
- ^ [1]Casualties and damage after the 1906 Earthquake. United States Geological Survey. Accessed December 6, 2006
- ^ [2] The San Francisco Earthquake of 1906: an insurance perspective. Insurance Information Institute. Accessed December 6, 2006
- ^ [3] The San Francisco Earthquake of 1906: an insurance perspective. Insurance Information Institute. Accessed December 6, 2006
- ^ The role of Lloyd's in the reconstruction Lloyd's of London, Accessed December 6, 2006
[edit] References
- Double Cone Quarterly, Fall Equinox, volume VII, Number 3 (2004).
- Eastwood, Alice, The Coniferae of the Santa Lucia Mountains.
- Lawson, Andrew C., The California Earthquake of April 18, 1906. Report of the State Earthquake Investigation Commission, Carnegie Institution of Washington, 1908.
- Morris, Charles. The San Francisco Calamity by Earthquake and fire. World Bible House, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, 1906.
- Reid, H. F., The Mechanics of the Earthquake, Vol. 2 in The California Earthquake of April 18, 1906. Report of the State Investigation Commission, Carnegie Institution of Washington, 1910.
- Winchester, Simon, A Crack in the Edge of the World: America and the Great California Earthquake of 1906. HarperCollins Publishers, New York, 2005.
[edit] External links
- The 1906 Earthquake and Fire from the National Archives
- San Francisco's 1906 Quake: What If It Struck Today? nationalgeographic.com, April 13, 2006
- San Francisco Earthquake Flash website with information for students.
- The Great 1906 Earthquake and Fire from the Museum of the City of San Francisco website
- Looking Back at the Public's Health, from the San Francisco Department of Public Health's website
- The Great 1906 Earthquake and Fire Browse images from the San Francisco Public Library's Historical Photograph Collection
- The San Francisco Chronicle's special report on the earthquake.
- The Great 1906 Earthquake and Fire from the Bancroft Library, includes interactive maps and panoramas.
- 1906 San Francisco Quake and Intensity Maps for that earthquake, from the U.S. Geological Survey site
- Several videos of the aftermath, from the Internet Archive website
- San Francisco in Ruins, Aerial Photographs of George R. Lawrence, reprinted from Landscape, Vol. 30, No. 2
- 1906 San Francisco Earthquake photos at Western Mining History
- The San Francisco Horror, a book published weeks after the event
- JB Monaco Photography, Images of the 1906 SF Earthquake from the well-known North Beach photographer
- Edith Irvine Collection: Photographs of the 1906 San Francisco earthquake
- Collection of 1906 Earthquake photography
- USGS 1906 Ground Motion Simulations
- Simulation of Mercalli Scale ground motion presented as a 75 second animation (Low-Res Quicktime)
- Simulation of Mercalli Scale ground motion presented as a 75 second animation (High-Res Quicktime)
- The San Francisco earthquake in Leslie's Weekly
- Report on the destruction of the Mark Hopkins institute of art in the earthquake
- Field Guide to the San Andreas Fault - See and Touch the World's Most Famous Fault
- An article by Ralph Henn from a 1970 issue of San Francisco Magazine on what almost happened to San Francisco's Chinatown and its residents in the days following the 1906 earthquake.
