Jehovah's Witnesses

Kingdom Hall of Jehovah's Witnesses

Jehovah's Witnesses are an international Christian denomination^[1] whose members believe that their faith is the restoration of first-century Christianity. In areas where they are active, they are commonly known for their door-to-door preaching and their objection to blood transfusions, and for not celebrating birthdays and most holidays. Their most widely-known publications are the religious magazines, The Watchtower and Awake!. Official membership of the organization, counted as those who preach each month, is estimated to be about 6.5 million.^[2]

Jehovah's Witnesses reject traditional Christian doctrines such as the Trinity, eternal torment in hell and the immortality of the soul. The central theme of their preaching is God’s Kingdom (that is, God's rule over the Earth) with Jesus Christ as its king. The Witnesses believe this rule began with the Second Coming or presence of Christ. Originally, this was believed to have occurred invisibly in 1874, but this date was later revised to 1914.

Other Witness teachings include the recognition and use of a personal name for God, translated as Jehovah in English, as vital for acceptable worship. They believe that Jesus' death was necessary to atone for the sin brought into the world by the first man, Adam, thus opening the way for the hope of everlasting life for mankind. It is also taught that only 144,000 people will receive eternal life in heaven with Jesus Christ as co-rulers over the earth. Witnesses believe that in the war of Armageddon, which they believe to be imminent, the wicked will be destroyed. The survivors of this event, along with individuals deemed worthy of resurrection, will form a new society and have the possibility of living forever in an earthly paradise.

History

Jehovah's Witnesses originated with the religious movement known as Bible Students, which was founded in the late 1870s by Charles Taze Russell. A schism erupted in 1917 at the beginning of the presidency of Russell's successor, Joseph Franklin Rutherford. Those who remained supportive of the Watchtower Society adopted the name Jehovah's Witnesses in 1931 under Rutherford's leadership. Those who did not support Rutherford formed various Bible Student groups which have retained Russell's teachings. Jehovah's Witnesses no longer use "Bible Students" as a name for their religion.

Charles Taze Russell (1852–1916)

In the early 1870s, Russell organized a Bible study group of Second Adventists in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.^[3] An interest in Bible prophecy was sparked, in part, by Jonas Wendell. In 1876, Russell met Nelson H. Barbour and subsequently adopted Barbour's eschatology. Barbour had predicted a visible return of Christ for 1873,^[4] and when that failed to occur, he revised the prediction to 1874.^[5] Soon after the second disappointment, Barbour's group decided Christ had returned invisibly to Earth in 1874.^[6] They differed from most Second Adventists by teaching that all humankind descending from Adam would be given a chance to live in a paradise on Earth.^[7] The year 1914 was seen as the final end, marking a forty-year period from 1874.^[8]

In July 1879, Russell broke with Barbour over the concept of substitutionary atonement and he soon began publishing his own magazine, Zion's Watch Tower and Herald of Christ's Presence (now known as The Watchtower).^[9] After the break, Russell retained the bulk of Barbour's eschatological views. He also maintained the Adventist rejection of the traditional view of Hell and by 1882 had rejected the doctrine of the Trinity.^[10] He became known as "Pastor Russell", and in 1881 formed the legal entity which developed into the non-profit organization: The Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania (currently headquartered in New York City).^[11] In 1884, it was incorporated, with Russell as president. He authored the six-volume series, Studies in the Scriptures.^[12] Early editions predicted that Armageddon would culminate in the year 1914.^[13] In 1914, Russell founded the International Bible Students Association in the United Kingdom.

Following Russell's death on October 31, 1916, an editorial committee of five was set up to supervise the writing of the Watch Tower magazine, as set forth in Russell's Last Will and Testament.^[14] On January 6, 1917, Joseph Franklin Rutherford (also known as "Judge Rutherford") was elected second President of the Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society. A power struggle soon developed between Rutherford and four of the seven-member Board of Directors of the Society.^[15] Matters reached a climax on July 17, 1917 as the book The Finished Mystery was released to the Bethel headquarters staff.^[16] Rutherford announced to the staff that he was also dismissing the four directors and replacing them with new members, claiming they had not been legally elected.^[17] The four dismissed directors set up the Pastoral Bible Institute and began publishing their own religious journal. Dissension and schisms ensued in congregations worldwide as a result of these events, and of the consequences of new predictions made for the years 1918,^[18] 1920^[19] and 1925.^[20][21]

The Watchtower Society's opposition to the draft during World War I resulted in legal action by the United States federal government. Rutherford and the new board of directors were sentenced to 20 years imprisonment for violating the Espionage Act. They were released on bail, and in March 1919, the judgment against them was reversed, and the charges dropped.^[22]

An emphasis on house-to-house preaching began in 1922.^[23] The period from 1925-1933 saw many significant changes in doctrine. Attendance at their yearly Memorial dropped from a high of 90,434 in 1925^[24] down to 17,380 in 1928^[25], due to the previous power struggle, the failed prophesies for the year 1925,^[26] and the evolving doctrinal changes which alienated those who sided with Russell's views.^[27] By 1933, 1914 was seen as the beginning of Christ's presence, his enthronement as king, and the start of the "last days" instead of being considered the terminal date in their chronology.^[28]The editorial committee was disbanded with Rutherford having the final say regarding what went into Watchtower publications.^[29]The offices and election of elders and deacons were also discontinued during this era with all "servants" in local congregations being appointed by headquarters.^[30]

Hitler's Nazi Germany persecuted Jehovah's Witnesses and many were imprisoned in concentration camps. Their identifying badge was a purple triangle.^[31] They "had the option to avoid persecution and personal harm by submitting to state authority and serving in the armed forces. Since such submission would violate their religious beliefs, the vast majority of Jehovah's Witnesses refused to abandon their faith even in the face of persecution, torture in concentration camps, or death."^[32]During this time period, Witnesses also experienced mob violence in America and were temporarily banned in Canada and Australia because they were perceived as being against the war effort.^[33]

Under Rutherford, membership grew from about 21,000 in 1917 to about 115,000 at the time of his death in 1942.

Nathan Homer Knorr succeeded Rutherford as president of the Watch Tower Society. Known as an efficient administrator, Knorr founded the Watchtower Bible School of Gilead to train missionaries, as well as the Theocratic Ministry School to train preaching and teaching at the congregational level. Significant Supreme Court victories involving the rights of free speech and religion for Jehovah's Witnesses have had a great impact on legal interpretation of these rights for others.^[34]In 1943, the United States Supreme Court ruled in West Virginia State Board of Education vs. Barnette that school children of Jehovah's Witnesses could not be compelled to salute the flag.

Knorr's vice-president Frederick William Franz became the leading theologian, and is believed to have been the principal translator of the New World Translation of the Holy Scriptures.^[35] Also produced were a Greek-English New Testament interlinear (The Kingdom Interlinear Translation of the Greek Scriptures) and a Bible dictionary (Aid to Bible Understanding).^[36] The offices of elder and ministerial servant (deacon) were restored to Witness congregations in 1972, with appointments being made from headquarters.^[37] Membership rose from 115,000 to over 2 million under Knorr's leadership.

New York headquarters of Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society

During the 1960s^[38] and early 1970s, various references were made in Witnesses' literature and at assemblies, implying that Christ's thousand-year millennial reign might begin by 1975.^[39] The chronology pointing to 1975 was noted in the secular media at the time.^[40] From 1975 to 1980, there was a drop in membership following the failure of this prediction.^[41] In 1980, the Watchtower Society admitted its responsibility in building up hope regarding the year 1975.^[42]

In 1976, the leadership of Jehovah's Witnesses was reorganized, and the power of the presidency passed on to the Governing Body of Jehovah's Witnesses. Subsequent presidents of the Watch Tower Society after Knorr's death in 1977 have been Frederick William Franz, Milton George Henschel and Don A. Adams. However, since 1976, doctrinal and organizational decisions have been made by the Governing Body and they supervise the writing of Watchtower publications.^[43] Witnesses no longer teach that the generation of people alive in 1914 will survive until Armageddon,^[44] but they continue to emphasize its nearness.^[45]

Demographics

Average Publishers, 1945–2005

Jehovah's Witnesses have an active presence in most countries, though they do not form a large part of the population of any country. Brazil, Mexico, and the United States are the only countries where the number of active Witness publishers exceeds half a million. As of August 2006, Jehovah's Witnesses have an average of 6.5 million members actively involved in preaching.^[46] Since the mid-1990s, the number of peak publishers has increased from 4.5 million to 6.7 million.^[47] However, there has been a rapid decline in growth rates, from over 8% per annum in the mid 1980's, to 5% per annum in the mid 1990's, to under 2% per annum since 1999.^[48] The official published membership statistics only include those who have reported preaching activity. "Inactive" members who have either not been involved in preaching, or have not submitted reports, are not included in the reported figures but may be reflected in the attendance at the Witnesses' annual Memorial, with over 16.6 million attending in 2006.^[49]

Organizational structure

See also: Legal instruments of Jehovah's Witnesses

The Watchtower Bible and Tract Society of New York, Inc. sets the Jehovah's Witnesses religious doctrine and policies and is also their legal representative and agent. Founded in 1909 when the headquarters of Jehovah's Witnesses moved to Brooklyn, the New York incorporation is a non-profit incorporation that publishes most of the literature distributed by Jehovah's Witnesses, including The Watchtower magazine in 158 languages. 'Watchtower' has never been the name of this religion.

Jehovah's Witnesses are currently led by a small Governing Body located at the Watchtower headquarters. The number of men who make up the Governing Body has ranged from ten to seventeen and currently stands at ten. The Governing Body, through the departments of its various legal organizations, directs the operation of the 112 branches throughout the world.^[50] Members volunteer to operate these facilities. Each branch assigns circuit overseers who travel among various congregations, spending a week with each. Within each local congregation, elders assigned by the branch organize the congregation's public ministry, and schedule various speakers for congregational teaching. They also decide on qualified members of the congregation for the positions of elder or ministerial servant, requiring the approval of higher leadership.

Elders are prominent in congregational matters, particularly in religious instruction and spiritual counseling; ministerial servants generally assist elders in a limited administrative capacity. Elders are unpaid, but Circuit and District overseers receive a small financial living allowance. All baptized Witnesses are considered to be ordained ministers, and are expected to be able to provide religious instruction to others. Males are encouraged to qualify to become elders. Within local congregations, the role of women is minimal in terms of responsibility, but they carry out a large proportion of the preaching work.

In 2000, the religion restructured its administrative divisions into three non-profit corporations:

1. The Christian Congregation of Jehovah's Witnesses - coordinates all service (i.e., proselytic) activities, including door-to-door proselytism, circuit and district conventions, etc.
2. The Religious Order of Jehovah's Witnesses - coordinates the activities of those involved in full-time service, including pioneers, missionaries, and circuit and district overseers.
3. Kingdom Support Services, Inc. - controls construction of new Kingdom Halls and other facilities, and holds the titles to Society-owned vehicles. [2]

Publications

The publishing arm of Jehovah's Witnesses, known as the Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania engages in extensive publication work. In addition to their two magazines -'The Watchtower' and 'Awake!'- they also publish many brochures, tracts and books including the New World Translation of the Holy Scriptures.

• The Watchtower has been published since 1879, this magazine is published twice a month and is now available in 158 languages. This magazine is the Witnesses' main journal and its articles are considered authoritative. It features articles primarily dealing with Bible topics and interpretation. Organizational news and biographies of various members are also occasionally included.
• Awake! is a general-interest magazine. It is considered a companion magazine to The Watchtower which focuses mostly on Bible study and doctrine. Awake! has a wider scope than the Watchtower, publishing articles on science, nature and geography, usually with a religious slant. Earlier titles for this magazine were The Golden Age (from 1919-1937) and Consolation (1937-1946). It is now published monthly, and currently available in 81 languages.

New World Translation of the Holy Scriptures is a translation of the Protestant canon. This Bible is distinct in its extensive use of the name Jehovah, an English version of the Hebrew Tetragrammaton, also replacing the Greek word for "Lord" over 200 times in the New Testament. The translators have opted to remain anonymous but others have identified them as being prominent leaders of the movement.^[51]

Beliefs and practices

The following highlights some of the current beliefs and practices of Jehovah's Witnesses. As such, it reflects the point of view of Jehovah's Witnesses.

Overview

The entire Biblical canon, excluding the Apocrypha, is considered the inspired word of God. A literal interpretation of the Bible is followed, though it is acknowledged that biblical writers and characters also employed symbolism, parable, figures of speech, and poeticism.^[52] Only the Bible should be used for determining issues of doctrine. Interpretation of scripture and codification of doctrines is the responsibility of the Governing Body of Jehovah's Witnesses.^[53]

The Tetragrammaton

God is the creator and supreme being, sovereign of the universe. Using God's name, Jehovah (a derivative of the Tetragrammaton^[54]), is a requirement for true worship.^[55] Jesus is God's first creation, used by God to create everything else.^[56] Jesus is literally the only begotten Son of God, and received his life from God. He is the means through whom to approach God in prayer, and is also the means of salvation for all worthy mankind.^[57] His role as mediator of the "new covenant" is limited to those going to heaven,^[58] whose number totals 144,000. The vast majority of Jehovahs' Witnesses will live on a renewed paradise on Earth.^[59] They believe that Jesus did not die on a cross but on a "torture stake".^[60] The holy spirit is not a person but is God's active force.^[61] Mary was not perpetually a virgin, but bore more children after Jesus.^[62] The soul is the person itself, not an immaterial entity that dwells inside the body.^[63] Death is a state of non-existence with no consciousness.^[64] Hades or Sheol is the designated common grave of all mankind. They do not believe in any Hell of fiery torment.^[65]

The "last days" began in 1914 and Armageddon is imminent.^[66] All other religions are false and they will shortly come under attack by governments worldwide.^[67] After false religion is destroyed, governments also face destruction.^[68] Any who are not deemed faithful by God will be destroyed with no hope of resurrection.^[69] The fate of some, such as small children or the mentally ill, remains indeterminate.^[70] After Armageddon, an unknown number of people who had died (prior to Armageddon) will be resurrected, with the prospect of living forever in paradise.^[71]

Their view of sexual behavior reflects conservative Christian views. Homosexuality and premarital sex are considered sins.^[72] Abortion is considered murder.^[73] Modesty is heavily encouraged in dress and grooming. Gambling is strictly forbidden.^[74] Practices that connote nationalism or false religion are avoided. Weddings, anniversaries, and funerals are typically observed; however, common celebrations and religious or national holidays such as Birthdays, Thanksgiving, and Christmas are regarded as unchristian and are not celebrated.^[75] The family structure is patriarchal. The husband is considered the final authority on family decisions, but is strongly encouraged to solicit his wife's thoughts and feelings. Marriages are required to be monogamous.^[76] Vigorous efforts are made to spread their beliefs by all members throughout the world in a variety of ways, with particular emphasis on the Watchtower publications. Literature is published in many languages through a wide variety of books, magazines and other publications, with a small number being available in as many as 410 languages. The preaching work is regarded as a form of humanitarian effort by giving people hope for the future.

Aid work after large natural disasters is considered an important part of their work. Large sums of donated money are used in the affected areas to rebuild communities and provide aid. The focus of relief efforts is primarily on helping fellow members, while providing assistance to others in need near the area in which they are working. Examples of relief work include that provided to Hutu and Tutsi victims during the Rwandan genocide, as well as to Congo refugees.^[77] Witnesses have also had an active share in the relief work of hurricane Katrina in the United States of America.^[78] However, on-going aid work as provided by some other religious groups, such as soup kitchens, clothing donations, or building homes for the homeless is not practiced.

The most important annual event is the commemoration of Jesus' death (referred to as "the Memorial") held after sundown on the date corresponding to Nisan 14 on the Hebrew calendar. Onlookers do not partake of the emblems representing Christ's flesh and blood unless they feel they have the heavenly hope. Typically, in most congregations no one partakes since almost all Witnesses believe their hope is to live on a paradise earth. Weekly meetings are also held, featuring a variety of discourses. Elders and ministerial servants deliver the majority of these, with some student discourses being given by women and men. Certain segments also feature audience participation.

Jehovah's Witnesses are politically neutral.^[79] They feel that their allegiance belongs to God's Kingdom, which is viewed as an actual government. Thus they refrain from saluting the flag of any country or singing nationalistic songs.^[80] They believe that such an act would be tantamount to worshipping an idol. Members are expected to obey all laws, including the paying of taxes, of the country in which they reside, so long as these do not violate what they view as God's law.^[81] The political neutrality of Jehovah's Witnesses is also expressed by their refusal to participate in military service, even when such is of a compulsory nature, and by their detachment from secular politics. Before 1996, Jehovah's Witnesses also refused alternatives to military service.^[82][83][84] Jehovah's Witnesses are discouraged, but not prohibited under all circumstances, from voting in elections.^[85] They do not stand for any political office.^[86]

Blood

Under the Watchtower organization’s blood doctrine, allogeneic and pre-operative autologous blood transfusions are rejected. Blood transfusions are acceptable if the blood is autologous and the process is party to a “current therapy”.^[87][88] This is based on an understanding of the biblical admonition to "keep abstaining from blood" based on Acts 15:28, 29 (NWT). This religious position allows Jehovah’s Witnesses to accept the entire volume of a given unit of donor blood so long as it is sufficiently fractionated beforehand.^[89] In current medical practice, whole blood transfusions are very rare, and individual blood components are used instead.

Jehovah’s Witnesses have been known to highlight the potential dangers of blood transfusions. Witness representatives have stated that plasma volume expanders are often sufficient to take care of various medical emergency situations.^[90] However, Witnesses explain that their objections to blood transfusions are for religious reasons.^[91]

Though premature deaths have occurred due to this religious position, there are no published statistics on these total deaths.^[92] However, a 2002 medical journal stated: "In the CEMD the very high risk of mortality in women who refuse blood transfusion was highlighted. The death rate in this group was 1 per 1,000 maternities compared with an expected incidence of less than 1 per 100, 000 maternities."^[93]

A growing number of hospitals are offering bloodless techniques in medicine and surgery.^[94] A number of medical professionals have credited Jehovah's Witnesses and their related organizations for their contribution to the dissemination of information regarding bloodless surgery techniques.^[95][96][97] Experts in the medical surgical profession have collaborated with Jehovah's Witnesses to produce information regarding the benefits of bloodless techniques and therapies.^[98]

There is not uniform acceptance of the current blood doctrine within the Jehovah's Witness community. Though accepted by a majority, there is evidence a significant population of Jehovah's Witnesses does not endorse it. The doctrine has drawn criticism from members of the medical community and Jehovah's Witnesses alike. (See main article Jehovah's Witnesses and blood)

Congregational discipline

Congregational discipline is administered by congregation elders through a 'judicial committee'. When an accusation is made concerning a baptized member, and there is sufficient evidence, a tribunal or judicial committee (usually of three elders) is formed to administer counsel and discipline. Marking is employed when a member persists in conduct that is ill-considered from a doctrinal standpoint, but not in a manner for which disfellowshipping would apply. If a member does not respond to repeated counseling from the elders, a talk may be given regarding the conduct (without naming the individual), 'marking' the member in the minds of those who know of the conduct. Though such a person would not be shunned, social interaction outside of formal worship settings would generally be discouraged.^[99] Reproof involves sins which are more serious than those for which one would be "marked". Reproof is given before all who have knowledge of the transgression.^[100]

The most severe discipline administered is disfellowshipping. The standard for determining whether one should be disfellowshipped is the judicial committee's estimation of the accused's repentance. Members of the judicial committee ask detailed questions and review actions of the member being considered, in consultation with guidelines as set forth by the Governing Body.^[101] Baptized members who reject essential doctrine can be disfellowshipped for apostasy.^[102] Once the decision to disfellowship has been made, a person has seven days to appeal. If no legitimate appeal is made, the disfellowshipping will be announced to the congregation by letting them know that the person "is no longer one of Jehovah's Witnesses". After one is disfellowshipped, all baptized members cut off all association with that person.^[103] Exceptions are made in business and family household situations. If the disfellowshipped person is living in the same home with other baptized family members, religious matters are not discussed. Disfellowshipped family members outside the home are shunned.^[104] Disfellowshipped members are still permitted to attend Kingdom Hall meetings, but are not allowed to take an active part in meetings or the ministry.^[105]

Members can officially leave the religion by writing a letter requesting to be "disassociated". Alternately, elders may also determine a member has disassociated themself by their actions. Both result in shunning.^[106] If a disassociated individual announces that they wish to reassociate, they are shunned by congregation members and may not participate in meetings until the elders announce them as an approved associate.

A disfellowshipped individual may return to the congregation if they are deemed sincerely repentant by the congregation elders. The congregation elders that made up the original judicial committee will allow a period of time for the individual to demonstrate their repentance. During this period, congregation members ignore the individual, and the individual is not permitted to comment at congregation meetings. Once a decision is made to reinstate, a brief announcement is made to the congregation that the disfellowshipped member is once again an approved associate of the congregation and one of Jehovah's Witnesses.

Critical views

One of the most outspoken critics of Jehovah's Witnesses is Raymond Franz, a former third-generation Jehovah's Witness. Franz, who served nine years on the Governing Body, uses Galatians 1:16–20 to support his claim that Paul of Tarsus did not view the apostles in Jerusalem as a governing body. He further contends that the council of Jerusalem was an isolated event, and that the creation of a central authority in Christianity was a 4th century development.^[107] As well, he argues a sense of guilt is imposed on those not complying with organization arrangements for field service. Further, he contends that engaging in this formal activity became an extra-scriptural requirement placed upon those wanting to qualify for eldership. He claims in addition that an individual's spirituality is judged by the elders on this basis. Further, he is critical of the application of the phrase "house to house" (gr. "kat' oikon") found at Acts 5:42, stating it does not require the idea of consecutive door-to-door visitation. He compares 27 Bible translations, for Acts 2:46, Acts 5:42 and Acts 20:20 showing phrases such as "at home", "at your houses" and "in your homes" are used more often than "house to house".^[108] He also maintains that fear of being shunned and/or family break-up/loss causes people to nominally remain members rather than formally disassociate themselves. Also, Franz asserts that the judicial process itself, due to its private and nearly autonomous nature, directly contradicts the precedent found in the Bible and the organization's own teachings, and can be used in an arbitrary manner.^[109]

Criticism regarding the procedures on reporting child abuse has also occurred. The current procedure that is followed when allegations of abuse are reported is based on a strict application of the principle at Deuteronomy 19:15: "No single witness should rise up against a man respecting any error or any sin, in the case of any sin that he may commit. At the mouth of two witnesses or at the mouth of three witnesses the matter should stand good" (New World Translation). If an allegation of child abuse is made, and the alleged perpetrator denies it, the local congregational elders will investigate to see if there can be any others who can substantiate the claim. If there are none, the elders do not disfellowship the accused individual, since the accusation may have no merit. However, according to the Jehovah's Witness office of Public information: "Even if the elders cannot take congregational action, they are expected to report the allegation to the branch office of Jehovah's Witnesses in their country, if local privacy laws permit. In addition to making a report to the branch office, the elders may be required by law to report even uncorroborated or unsubstantiated allegations to the authorities. If so, we expect the elders to comply. Additionally, the victim may wish to report the matter to the authorities, and it is his or her absolute right to do so."^[110] For over a decade now, Watchtower has had in place a general policy of making known child molesters ineligible for special congregational responsibilities (e.g. serving as elders or ministerial servants (deacons)), even if the crime was committed years before, or even prior to the person's becoming a Witness. The general policy is not premised as punishment to the offender, but seen rather, by the church, as a means of protecting the congregation's members.

Controversy

A number of doctrines of Jehovah's Witnesses differ from that of mainstream Christianity. Possibly the most controversial doctrinal differences relate to the nature of God and of Jesus, particularly the Jehovah's Witnesses' rejection of the Trinity doctrine. Other differences involve their beliefs concerning death and judgment. Many of these doctrines are considered heresy by mainstream Christian denominations, and as a result many label Jehovah's Witnesses as a cult.

In turn, Jehovah's Witnesses believe that the foretold apostasy, or "falling away," of Second Thessalonians, II, 3 adequately explains all false doctrines derived by deviation from the standard for spiritual truth set forth by Jesus at John XVII, 17.

Some scholars have consistently upheld the the quality of the translation^[111] whereas others have criticized the New World Translation, the translation of the Bible published by Jehovah's Witnesses, stating that the group has changed the Bible to suit their doctrine, and that the translation contains a number of errors and inaccuracies.^[112]

A large number of books have been published that are critical of the Watchtower Tract & Bible Society.^[113] Critics state that the Watchtower Society has made a number of unfulfilled predictions and doctrinal changes over the years, while claiming that it is the "one and only channel"^[114] used by God to continually dispense truth, and that "it alone, in all the earth, is directed by God's holy spirit or force".^[115]

Critics have also challenged the Witnesses' policies on blood transfusions, stating that their requirements are inconsistent and contradictory.^[116]

Critics have also argued that various Witness policies and practices, including the treatment of members who dissociate or are disfellowshipped, freedom to access external information about the group from former members, and the regulation of members' lives, impact negatively on the ability of members to exercise freedom of mind.

The Watchtower Bible and Tract Society's former affiliation with the Department of Public Information of the United Nations has been controversial. Also controversial has been the view of Jehovah's Witnesses towards other religions.

Some countries such as Uzbekistan, Cuba, Belarus and the city of Moscow have opposed the building of facilities (such as Kingdom Halls) and the holding of large conventions in their territory. Though such opposition is at times specifically directed at the religious group, at other times more mundane concerns are involved, such as traffic congestion and noise. In some legal cases, (such as Congrégation des témoins de Jéhovah de St-Jérôme-Lafontaine v. Lafontaine (Village)), disputes that have been about appropriate land use have been claimed by the Witnesses to have come out of religious bias.

See also

• Bloodless surgery
• Jehovah's Witnesses splinter groups
• Knocking, a documentary on Witnesses produced in 2006
• Religious Rejection of Politics
• Restorationism
• Supreme Court cases involving Jehovah's Witnesses

References

Further reading

Watch Tower resources

• Jehovah's Witnesses: Watchtower Society Official Web Site
• Authorized Site of the Office of Public Information of Jehovah's Witnesses

Books

• Apocalypse Delayed: The Story of Jehovah's Witnesses by M. James Penton. Penton, who is a professor emeritus of history at University of Lethbridge, examines the history of Jehovah's Witnesses, and their doctrines. Read selections from: Apocalypse Delayed: the story of Jehovah's Witnesses University of Toronto Press. ISBN 0-8020-7973-3 (Canada, 1998) (Google book search)
• Crisis of Conscience by Raymond Franz, a former Jehovah's Witness who was a member of the Governing Body of the Watch Tower Society for nine years. This book gives a detailed account of the authority structure, practices, doctrines and decision-making practices Franz experienced while serving on the Governing Body. Sample chapters online (require Adobe Acrobat Reader): 1, 9, 10, 11, 12. Publisher: Commentary Press. 420 pages. Hardback ISBN 0-914675-24-9. Paperback ISBN 0-914675-23-0. 4th edition (June 2002)

• The Gentile Times Reconsidered: Chronology & Christ's Return by Carl O. Jonsson. Jonsson considers the origin of the belief that the Gentile Times began in 607 B.C. and examines several lines of evidence and the methodology for deriving it. ISBN 0-914675-06-0 Publisher: Commentary Press (July, 1998, Fourth edition 2004)
• Jehovah's Witnesses Defended by Greg Stafford. Stafford reviews and thoroughly explores the most common, and/or prevalent, criticisms made about Jehovah's Witnesses and the Watchtower Bible & Tract Society. http://elihubooks.com/books/
• A People for His Name: A History of Jehovah's Witnesses and an Evaluation by Timothy White (pseudonym for Anthony Wills). White explores the Witnesses' doctrinal growth and shifts and notes schisms from the main body. 418 pages. Publisher: The Vantage Press, 1967.
• Reasoning From the Scriptures with the Jehovah's Witnesses by Ron Rhodes. 444 pages. Harvest House Publishers, 1993. Written from an Evangelical Christian perspective, this book is designed to aid them in dialogues with Witnesses. ISBN 1-56507-106-9

Websites

• About Jehovah's Witnesses — Critique of Jehovah's Witnesses by Evangelical Christians
• BBC Religion: Jehovah's Witnesses
• CESNUR, the Center for Studies on New Religions — CESNUR is an international network of associations of scholars working in the field of new religious movements.
• Christian Apologetics and Resources Ministry - A critical analysis and evaluation of Jehovah's Witnesses theology from an Evangelical Christian perspective.
• Free minds — Detailed discussions about Jehovah's Witnesses' doctrines, history, and claims from a critical perspective.
• Jehovah's Witnesses United — A collection of scholarly information supporting the Watchtower Bible & Tract Society's teachings and the New World Translation.
• Jehovah's Witnesses World News Forum — Jehovah's Witnesses news forum.
• Reexamine.org — Downloads page of older Watchtower publications and quotes in a searchable format.
• Strictly Genteel Theocratic Resources — Scans of complete books and booklets from Russell's era to Knorr's. The "site is maintained by one of Jehovah's Witnesses who fully supports the Watchtower Bible and Tract Society." Emphasis is on literature not found in the Watchtower Library CD-ROM.
• Watchtower Information Service - News and articles on Jehovah's Witnesses and the Watchtower Bible and Tract Society from a critical perspective.
• Witnesses of Jehovah - A critical film detailing the history, structure and beliefs of Jehovah's Witnesses.