Women in Muslim societies

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A Khara Dupatta and hyderabadi jewelry worn by a bride from Hyderabad
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A Khara Dupatta and hyderabadi jewelry worn by a bride from Hyderabad

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Women in Muslim societies have varying roles, rights and obligations depending on the particular society they live in. In many Muslim countries women have fewer rights than men with regard to marriage, divorce, civil rights, legal status, dress code, professional lives and education.

Some Muslims feel that these restrictions are mandated by the Qur'an and sunnah, as explicated by sharia, or Islamic law. They argue that these laws are based on the divine understanding of the differences between the nature of men and women, and as such are immutable, perfect, and just.

Other Muslims say that these restrictions sometimes go beyond what is mandated by sharia, and are motivated by culture, not religion. However, they feel that the rules of sharia, liberally interpreted, should still apply.

Yet other Muslims feel that sharia, as developed by medieval scholars, is outdated and must be reinterpreted to fit the circumstances of modern life. They argue that these laws were intended to apply in the specific circumstances of the time of the prophet Muhammad, and that their intent can be defined by their contrast with the restrictions imposed on women in pre-Islamic Arabia. Muhammad set a process of liberation in motion which should be continued rather than frozen in its 7th century state. They argue that numerous verses from the Qur'an imply that men and women are equal as believers, and that these passages have precedence over more restrictive passages. (See [1] for a more extended treatment of such views.)

Contents

[edit] Right to work

Many Muslims claim that women and men are treated as equals in Islam. However the woman's primary responsibility is usually interpreted as having to raise children. Some Muslims believe that if women fulfill this, they may have a career if they wish and their husbands agree, but other Muslims disagree. Some Muslims believe that regardless of their "primary" responsibility, the Qur'an does allow women to earn money, by having occupations outside of the home. (4:32)

[edit] Marriage

Main article: Islamic view of marriage

Islamic law requires a type of dowry but it is different from some anthropological notions of brideprice. Islam requires that a husband make a gift, or settle money upon the bride. This is called mahr, mehr, or meher. The gift can be intangible or negligible, or it can be a valuable gift of real property or investments. The mahr may also be divided into portions, one to be given the bride at marriage, the other to be given the wife if she is widowed or divorced. The mahr can be a form of protection against arbitrary divorce.

The details of the mahr should be specified in the marriage contract. The marriage contract can also specify where the couple will live, whether or not the first wife will allow the husband to take a second wife without her consent, whether or not the wife has the right to initiate divorce, and other such matters. The marriage contract somewhat resembles the marriage settlements once negotiated for upper-class Western brides, but can extend to non-financial matters usually ignored by marriage settlements or pre-nuptial agreements.

In practice, most Islamic marriages are contracted without a written contract, or using a "fill in the blanks" form supplied by the officiant. In such cases, Islamic law influenced by custom and/or rulings by local courts based on local law governs the treatment of a divorcee or widow, and is often, in the opinion of Islamic feminists, unfair or unkind. Islamic feminists have been active in informing Muslim women of their rights under Islamic law and encouraging them to negotiate favorable contracts before marriage.

A Muslim may not marry or remain married to an unbeliever of either sex (2:221, 60:10). A Muslim man may marry a woman of the People of the Book (5:5), however, a Muslim woman may only marry a Muslim man.

[edit] Divorce and Child Custody

Main article: Talaq (Nikah)

The rules for Talaq (divorce) vary among the major Islamic schools. Women are guaranteed certain rights of divorce and inheritance in Islam, although the extent to which these rights have been exercised in practice has differed significantly from nation to nation, and from time period to time period. Most importantly Shi'a and Sunni Muslims have different rules to engage a Talaq. In both the Sunni and Shi'a traditions the right of divorce is primarily for men, unless otherwise specified in the marriage contract, so that women can only seek divorce through court proceedings by convincing a Qadi to grant a divorce. Shi'as and Sunnis believe that a wife can ask for a Hula or 'Khulah' divorce, but that is only effective if the wife agrees to pay her husband, usually just returning the man's mahr. In practice in most of the Muslim world today divorce can be quite involved as there may be separate secular procedures to follow as well. Usually the divorced wife keeps her mahr, both the original gift and any supplementary property specified in the marriage contract. She is also given child support until the age of weaning, at which point the child's custody will be settled by the couple or by the courts. In traditional Islamic law custody goes to the father after the child has reached a certain age, unless the divorced woman re-marries in which case the child should go to the Father even sooner. [citation needed]

[edit] Women as clergy and religious scholars

Main article: Women as imams

Women, as well as men, are encouraged to become as educated as they can in Islam, and therefore there is nothing wrong with women becoming scholars. However the right to have an official position in a masjid is disputed by many. A fundamental role of an imam in a masjid is to lead the salah. Women may not lead the salah of men unless every man in the prayer is unable to lead it. Any woman may be an imam in salah for a group of women, but for a mixed group (men and women), only a man can lead.

[edit] As national leaders

There is a Sunni hadith reported by Bukhari (Sahih Bukhari, Volume 5, Book 59, Number 709) which reports that Muhammad said that a people with a female ruler will never be successful. Many traditional Muslim societies have been unwilling to allow women to rule for this reason[citation needed]. In more modern times this hadith has been disputed.

Some interpretations of Islamic law hold that women should not lead men, and thus are forbidden from working in the government. This has been a widespread view in many Muslim nations in the last century[citation needed].

Some Muslims argue that Muhammad's wife Aisha, who both took part in politics and served as a major authority on hadith, is an example of possible roles for Muslim women. Other Muslims would dissent—(Aisha is seen in a darker light by Shi'a Muslims because she opposed Muhammad's cousin and son-in-law Ali).

There are few other historical role models for Muslim women as leaders. Razia Sultana was the short-lived third major independent Muslim ruler of the Sultanate of Delhi in India and the Mamluk queen Shajarat ad-Durr ruled for a few years in Egypt.

There are many more contemporary models. Indeed, many Muslim-majority countries have had female heads of state:

None, except Ciller, rose to prominence solely through their own characters, as they were the daughters or widows of previous heads of state, and this reflects the semi-feudal nature of their societies. Some Muslim women also hold important positions in some governments and corporations. A paradoxical example is the forbidden Islamist party of Morocco Justice and Charity. Since the leader cannot speak openly, his daughter Nadia Yassine is the one who publicly defends the opposition to government-sponsored reforms on the legal status of Moroccan women.

The circumstances of the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic and the Iran-Iraq war where men were fighting led to an increase of the role of women in the public life of the Sahrawi and Iranians.

[edit] Right to vote

Until recently most Muslim nations were non-democratic. Today a minority of Islamists view democracy as against Islam. This view is espoused by groups such as Al-Muhajiroun, whereas more mainstream Muslims disagree, and believe it to be an evolution of the Islamic concept of Shura.

Many Muslim nations today allow their citizens to have some level of voting and control over their local government with a few exceptions in Arabia. Besides Kuwait and Saudi Arabia, as well as Lebanon which requires proof of education for women to vote, all such nations allow women to vote.

In 2005 Kuwait passed a ruling that will allow women to vote in 2007.

It should also be noted that according to some scholars voting is permissible for women in Islam, as it has never been openly banned, neither in Quran nor by Sunnah. [2]

[edit] Clothing

Main article: Islam and clothing
A woman wearing a Niqab in Yemen
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A woman wearing a Niqab in Yemen

The Qur'an requires believers, both male and female, to dress modestly.

"And tell the believing women to lower their gaze and guard their private parts and not to display their adornment except that which ordinarily appears thereof and to draw their headcovers over their chests and not to display their adornment except to their husbands, their fathers, their husbands fathers, their sons." (24:31).

Women must (citation needed) wear hijab. All those in whose presence a woman is not obliged to cover herself are called her mahrams. While in front of other women, she is only obliged to cover from her navel to her knees.

Traditionally, this sura has been interpreted to mean that women should cover all but their face and hands. Men are required only to cover themselves from knee to waist. Some Islamic societies have set even stricter dress codes for women, requiring women to wear chadors or burqas that hide all but the eyes. Some Muslims criticize this as excessive, referring to Qur'anic verses saying that it is wrong to refrain from what is permitted by God according to Qur'an 66:1. This is usually interpreted as applying to asceticism; critics of strict dress codes are applying this to clothing as well.

Some contemporary Muslims believe that the commandment to modesty must be interpreted with regard to the surrounding society. What is considered modest, or daring, in one society may not be considered so in another. It is important, they say, for believers to wear clothing that communicates modesty and reserve in the situations in which they find themselves. [3]

Esposito writes that customs of veiling and seclusion of women in early Islam were assimilated from the conquered Persian and Byzantine societies and then later on they were viewed as appropriate expressions of Quranic norms and values. The Qur'an does not stipulate veiling or seclusion, on the contrary, it tends to emphasize the participation of religious responsibility of both men and women in society.[1]

[edit] Domestic violence

Main article: Domestic behaviour in Islam

The Quran explicitly gives permission to men to beat their wives if they fear "rebellion" although according to some interpretations of Sharia (Islamic law), authorization for the husband to physically beat a disobedient wife is provided only under certain conditions. First, admonishment is verbal and secondly a period of refraining from intimate relations is observed. Finally, if the husband finds the situation very serious, he may hit her:

"Men are the maintainers of women because Allah has made some of them to excel others and because they spend out of their property; the good women are therefore obedient, guarding the unseen as Allah has guarded; and [as to] those on whose part you fear nushûz, admonish them, and [then] leave them alone in the sleeping-places and [last] idribûhunna'[usually translated as "beat"]; then if they obey you, do not seek a way against them; surely Allah is High, Great." (Qur'an 4:34 English translation: MH Shakir)

Here the Qur'an prescribes the actions to be taken in the event of nushûz. It is worth noting that the words "then" and "last" do not appear in the original text but have been added by some modern translators of the Quran. Concerning the meaning of nushûz, Dr. Ahmad Shafaat writes:

The literal meaning of the word is "rebellion". But rebellion against whom and in what sense? We should certainly not think of this in terms the rebellion of the ruled against a ruler in a sultanate or dictatorship and conclude that it consists of the wife disobeying some of the husband's commands. This is because the same word nushuz is used in case of a husband in verse 128 of the same surah 4, where it is said: "If a woman fears nushuz on her husband's part..." So nushûz is something that can be feared by the husband on the wife's part or by the wife on her husband's part. It cannot therefore be understood in terms of the ruler-ruled relationship. To correctly understand the meaning of the word, it must be noted that both in the verse under consideration and in verse 128 the reference to nushuz is followed by a reference to the break-up of the marriage (see vv. 35, 130). If this context is kept in mind, then it becomes evident that nushuz means the type of behavior on the part of the husband or the wife which is so disturbing for the other that their living together becomes difficult. ...In short, nushûz is a behavior on the part of one marriage partner which comes out of ill-will and seriously disturbs the other partner.[4]

Thus, in the case of nushûz, the Qur'an prescribes three possible actions. The husband is to admonish the wife and reason with her as to why her actions are damaging the family, the husband is also requested to remain separate from his wife and the Qur'an also prescribes idribûhunna. In many {modern} interpretations of Surah 4:4 these steps are to be taken in sequence. [citation needed]

The word idribûhunna (from the root daraba ضرب) has several meanings in the Qur'an. Its most common meaning in Arabic has been rendered as "beat", "hit", "scourge", or "strike". Other meanings for daraba used in the Qur'an (though not with a human direct object) include 'to travel', 'to make a simile', 'to cover', 'to separate', and 'to go abroad', among others.

For this reason, some contemporary Muslims consider "hit" to be a misinterpretation. They argue that this verse should be translated as "admonish them, and leave them alone in the sleeping-places and separate from them."

Yet other Muslim commentators and Qur'anic translators feel that these translations are strained, and that the most straightforward interpretation, "hitting", is more accurate.

Certain modern translations of the Qur'an in the English language accept the commoner translation of "beat", but tone down the wording with bracketed additions.

[edit] Beating severity

Most commentators have accepted that idribûhunna means "beat", but have imposed strict limits of the severity of the beating allowed, and have indicated that it is better not to beat than to beat. Furthermore, if the beating leaves bruises, the husband can be sued according to Islamic law. [citation needed]

The contemporary commentator Abul 'Ala Maududi makes the following comment in his Tafheem Al-Qur'an:

So far as the actual application of these measures is concerned, there should, naturally, be some correspondence between the fault and the punishment that is administered. Moreover, it is obvious that wherever a light touch can prove effective one should not resort to sterner measures. ...And even in cases where it is necessary, the Prophet (peace be upon him) directed men not to hit across the face, nor to beat severely nor to use anything that might leave marks on the body. (See Ibn Majah, 'Nikah', 3-Ed.)

The medieval jurist ash-Shafi'i, founder of one of the main schools of fiqh, commented on this verse that "hitting is permitted, but not hitting is preferable." Likewise, Ibn Kathir Ad-Damishqee records in his monumental Tafsir Al-Qur'an Al-Azim:

"Ibn `Abbas and several others said that the Ayah refers to a beating that is not violent. Al-Hasan Al-Basri said that it means, a beating that is not severe."

Muhammad Asad notes, in his translation of the Qur'an, The Message of the Qur'an:

With all this, he stipulated in his sermon on the occasion of the Farewell Pilgrimage, shortly before his death, that beating should be resorted to only if the wife "has become guilty, in an obvious manner, of immoral conduct", and that it should be done "in such a way as not to cause pain (ghayr mubarrih)"; authentic traditions to this effect are found in Muslim, Tirmidhi, Abu Da'ud, Nasa'i and Ibn Majah. On the basis of these traditions, many authorities stress that this "beating", if resorted to at all, should be more or less symbolic – "with a toothbrush, or some such thing" (Tabari, quoting the views of scholars of the earliest times), or even "with a folded handkerchief" (Razi); and some of the greatest Muslim scholars (e.g., Ash-Shafi'i) are of the opinion that it is just barely permissible, and should preferably be avoided: and they justify this opinion by the Prophet's personal feelings with regard to this problem.

Dr. Ahmad Shafaat says:

The wife has no religious obligation to take the beating. She can ask for and get divorce any time. The suggestion applies only in the case when the husband is seriously disturbed by a prolonged nasty behavior on the part of the wife but neither he nor the wife is as yet seriously thinking of breaking up... If the husband beats a wife without respecting the limits set down by the Qur'an and Hadith, then she can take him to court and if ruled in favor has the right to apply the law of retaliation and beat the husband as he beat her.

Several hadith have been interpreted to condemn beating one's wife.

  • "How does anyone of you beat his wife as he beats the stallion camel and then embrace (sleep with) her? (Al-Bukhari, English Translation, vol. 8, Hadith 68, pp. 42-43).
  • "I went to the Apostle of Allah (peace be upon him) and asked him: What do you say (command) about our wives? He replied: Give them food what you have for yourself, and clothe them by which you clothe yourself, and do not beat them, and do not revile them. (Sunan Abu-Dawud, Book 11, Marriage (Kitab Al-Nikah), Number 2139)".
  • "Never beat God's handmaidens". (Abu Da'ud, Nasa'i, Ibn Majah, Ahmad ibn Hanbal, Ibn Hibban and Hakim, on the authority of Iyas ibn `Abd Allah; Ibn Hibban, on the authority of `Abd Allah ibn `Abbas; and Bayhaqi, on the authority of Umm Kulthum).

However, some suggest that these hadith were later abrogated, noting that on his last pilgrimage to Mecca, Muhammad is supposed to have said:

Fear Allah concerning women! Verily you have taken them on the security of Allah, and intercourse with them has been made lawful unto you by words of Allah. You too have right over them, and that they should not allow anyone to sit on your bed whom you do not like. But if they do that, you can chastise them but not severely. Their rights upon you are that you should provide them with food and clothing in a fitting manner. (Narrated in Sahih Muslim, on the authority of Jabir.) [5]

Sheikh Yusuf al-Qaradawi, head of the European Council for Fatwa and Research, says that:

"If the husband senses that feelings of disobedience and rebelliousness are rising against him in his wife, he should try his best to rectify her attitude by kind words, gentle persuasion, and reasoning with her. If this is not helpful, he should sleep apart from her, trying to awaken her agreeable feminine nature so that serenity may be restored, and she may respond to him in a harmonious fashion. If this approach fails, it is permissible for him to beat her lightly with his hands, avoiding her face and other sensitive parts. In no case should he resort to using a stick or any other instrument that might cause pain and injury. Rather, this 'beating' should be of the kind the Prophet (peace be on him) once mentioned to a disobedient maid-servant, when he said 'If it were not for the fear of retaliation on the Day of Resurrection, I would have beaten you with this miswak (tooth-cleaning twig)' [as reported by Ibn Majah, by Ibn Hibban in his Sahih, and by Ibn Sa`d in his Tabaqat]. [6].[7]

Al-Qaradawi's critics say that he should also have mentioned the verse following the verse regarding wife-beating. This verse calls for arbitration:

"And if you fear a breach between them twain (the man and his wife), appoint (two) arbitrators, one from his family and the other from hers; if they both wish for peace, Allah will cause their reconciliation. Indeed Allah is Ever All-Knower,
Well-Acquainted with all things." (Qur'an 4:35) Sura An-Nisa:35

Critics argue that the Qur'an favors arbitration over beatings; others disagree.

[edit] Domestic violence among Muslims

The scholars who accept that "beating" is allowed often stress that it is a last resort, discountenanced, and must be done so as not to cause injury. Yet some Muslim men feel they have the right to beat their wives in whatever fashion, mild or severe, that they choose.

Domestic violence is regarded as an endemic problem by officials of many Western countries with large populations of diasporic Muslims. The incidence in many Muslim-majority countries is uncertain, but believed to be great by Muslim feminists and by the World Health Organisation. One recent study, in Syria, found that 25% of the married women surveyed said that they had been beaten by their husbands [8].

In some recent high-profile cases, Muslim women have dared to publicize their mistreatment at the hands of their husbands, in hopes that public condemnation of wife-beating will end toleration of the practice (see Rania al-Baz).

It is far from clear whether this toleration of domestic violence is a purely cultural matter, prevalent in some Muslim-majority societies and not in others, or whether it is a general Muslim problem. However a major study by the World Health Organisation found that domestic violence was more common in rural areas than in urban areas as well as usually being more common in most Muslim-majority countries [9].

[edit] Legal status

In Islamic law the legal status of women is similar to that of men, but in certain cases men have advantages. It is mentioned in the Qur'an:

"... And women shall have rights similar to the rights against them, according to what is equitable; but men have a degree (of advantage) over them. And Allah is Exalted in Power, Wise." Sura 2:228[10]

Women are entitled the right of inheritance:

"From what is left by parents and those nearest related there is a share for men and a share for women, whether the property be small or large,-a determinate share."Sura 4:7 [11]

But a daughter's share is half the share of a son , otherwise the share of a female heir is less than a male one :

"Allah (thus) directs you as regards your Children's (Inheritance): to the male, a portion equal to that of two females: if only daughters, two or more, their share is two-thirds of the inheritance; if only one, her share is a half. For parents, a sixth share of the inheritance to each, if the deceased left children; if no children, and the parents are the (only) heirs, the mother has a third; if the deceased Left brothers (or sisters) the mother has a sixth. (The distribution in all cases ('s) after the payment of legacies and debts. Ye know not whether your parents or your children are nearest to you in benefit. These are settled portions ordained by Allah; and Allah is All-knowing, All-wise. "Sura 4: 11 [12]

Proponents of Shari'a argue that this is fair based on a traditional patriarchal view of the family where the male is the sole provider, given that a Muslim male is obligated to spend part of his inheritance on his wife, children and house, while the female may keep all of it for herself. Financial support for home and family is said to be solely the responsibility of the husband.

In most Muslim nations, the law of the state concerning inheritance is in accordance with this law.

In Islamic law, in general, it is preferred that the testimony be given by a male. If, however, for any reason, a male is not available and the contract must be signed urgently, the testimony of two female witnesses is preferred for every male absent:

"...Let his guardian dictate faithfully, and get two witnesses, out of your own men, and if there are not two men, then a man and two women, such as ye choose, for witnesses, so that if one of them errs, the other can remind her..."Sura 2: 282[13]

It is sometimes argued, however, that this only applies to the signing of contracts, where witnesses are handpicked, and not to the witnessing of unplanned events (e.g. crimes), where the testimony of men and women is considered equal. [14]


The moral responsibility of men and women is considered equal, as suggested by verses like this:

"Lo! Men who surrender unto Allah, and women who surrender, and men who believe and women who believe, and men who obey and women who obey, and men who speak the truth and women who speak the truth, and men who persevere (in righteousness) and women who persevere and men who are humble and women who are humble, and men who give aims and women who give alms, and men who fast and women who fast, and men who guard their modesty and women who guard (their modesty), and men who remember Allah and women who remember-Allah hath prepared for them forgiveness and a vast reward." Sura 33:35[15]

But some Islamic laws concerning murder and injury deal with women differently, there is a verse in this connection:

"O ye who believe! the law of equality is prescribed to you in cases of murder: the free for the free, the slave for the slave, the woman for the woman. But if any remission is made by the brother of the slain, then grant any reasonable demand, and compensate him with handsome gratitude, this is a concession and a Mercy from your Lord. After this whoever exceeds the limits shall be in grave penalty."Sura 2:178 [16]

This verse is referred to in connection with the legal concept of diya, which is roughly the financial compensation for an injury or murder [17].In shari'a , the diya paid in compensation of an injury done to a woman is usually half the diya paid for a similar injury done to a man. Diya usually applies only to un-intentional injuries and manslaughter.

These laws of shari'a are practiced in some Muslim nations. Some believe that they violate human rights. [18] However, proponents of shari'a argue that these laws -- unfair as they might seem at first -- ensure justice because positions of men and women are different in Islam. Shari'a defenders say that there is a difference between gender equity and gender equality[19]. Shari'a, they say, enforces equity but not equality.

[edit] Punishment for sexual or marriage offenses

Main article: Honor killing

"Honor killings" are often identified with Islam, although scholars dispute their Quranic basis. The usual argument in favour of honor killings is the belief that the woman's sexual immorality causes the clan or family to lose honour. Such killings usually take place within a few Muslim communities around the Mediterranean. On the other hand, the practice is unknown in Indonesia, the world's largest Islamic country.

Some writers assert this sort of punishment is a part of Islamic teaching. Others say that such killings have no basis in the Qur'an whatsoever.

Many Muslim scholars and commentators say that honor killings are a cultural practice which is neither exclusive to, nor universal within, the Islamic world. However the practice is strongly associated with the Arabic- Turkish- and Urdu-speaking parts of the Muslim world. Furthermore, most cases involving the practice in other parts of the world involve people from Muslim majority countries[20][21]. Islamic teaching holds that life is given by Allah and should not be taken lightly, but it allows severe punishment, up to and including capital punishment, for certain kinds of crime; these include, in strict interpretations, all extramarital sexual relations by both men and women — though only adulterers may be punished with death (see Zina). However, Islamic law also maintains that before such punishment can take place, a trial should be held and there must either be proof of misbehaviour in the form of pregnancy of the accused, or the accuser should supply four witnesses. However Islamic law makes it very hard to punish families for their murder of their daughters through the necessity of offering the family of the victim the right to offer clemency to the killer.

The interpretation and application of laws relating to marriage and chastity has varied in different eras and places. (See Islamic view of marriage, Zina)

[edit] Women as prisoners of war or as slaves

Main article: Ma malakat aymanukum

The term "what your right hands possess", Ma malakat aymanukum, occurs 14 times in the Qur'an. It is most often used with reference to women, but may be applied to both sexes. The term usually refers to prisoners of war, or may more broadly refer to slaves in general, according to the usual tafsirs (eg Ibn Kathir.) Most Muslims believe that what these verses state should not be applied today. The arguments range from simply ethical and social to strictly jurisprudential.

[edit] The effect of Islamism

The nebulous revivalist movement termed Islamism is one of the most dynamic movements within Islam in the 20th and 21st centuries. Islamists tend to minimize the role of women in some aspects of civil life, although in the longest-standing Islamist state - Iran - women legislators are included in the Majlis, and women comprise 60% of university students.[22]

[edit] Taliban

In Taliban-controlled Afghanistan, only the Taliban's version of Islam was permitted. The Taliban prevented women from working, and sharply restricted the education of girls. Women were also denied hospital treatment to prevent their exposure to male hospital staff.

Taliban religion minister, Al-Haj Maulwi Qalamuddin, told the New York Times that "To a country on fire, the world wants to give a match. Why is there such concern about women? Bread costs too much. There is no work. Even boys are not going to school. And yet all I hear about are women. Where was the world when men here were violating any woman they wanted?"

Although the Taliban claimed that the education of girls in rural Afghanistan was increasing, a UNESCO report stated that there was "a whopping 65 percent drop in their enrollment. In schools run by the Directorate of Education, only 1 percent of the pupils are girls. The percentage of female teachers, too, has slid from 59.2 per cent in 1990 to 13.5 per cent in 1999." The Taliban regime was considered by some Muslims to be no more than a sect; one that was not recognized by most Muslim nations and an incorrect representation of Islamic teachings.

[edit] The effect of feminism on Islam

Main article: Islamic feminism

All the mainstream denominations of Islam allow Muslim women to be recognized as religious scholars (at least in theory), but not to lead mixed prayers, i.e. be imams, or deliver Friday sermons. In practice, despite Aisha's example, few female religious scholars exist. This state of affairs is considered unsatisfactory by liberal movements within Islam (among others), which have attempted to bring about feminist reforms.

[edit] See also

[edit] References

  1. Women Leads Muslims in Prayers Daily News (New York) March 19,2005 Jordan Lite, p.8
  2. Woman leads N.Y. Muslims in prayer Lisa Anderson, Chicago Tribune, Posted March 19 2005
  3. The Camera and the Burqa, a review of films on women in Afghanistan, by Martin Kramer
  4. Tafseer of Surah an-Nisa, Ayah 34 Dr. Ahmad Shafaat, Islamic Perspectives. August 10, 2005
  5. Muslim women take charge of their faith, International Herald Tribune, December 4, 2005
  6. Women, Islam, and the New Iraq, Foreign Affairs, January/February 2006

and

  1. ^ John Esposito, Islam: The Straigth Path,, p.98, 3rd Edition. Oxford University Press, 2005.

[edit] External links

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