Variable-frequency drive
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A variable-frequency drive (VFD) is a system for controlling the rotational speed of an alternating current (AC) electric motor by controlling the frequency of the electrical power supplied to the motor. A variable frequency drive is a specific type of adjustable-speed drive. Variable-frequency drives are also known as adjustable-frequency drives (AFD), variable-speed drives (VSD), AC drives or inverter drives.
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[edit] Operating principle
Variable frequency drives operate under the principle that the synchronous speed of an AC motor is determined by the frequency of the AC supply and the number of poles in the stator winding, according to the relation:
where
RPM = Revolutions per minute
f = AC power frequency (Hertz)
p = Number of poles (an even number)
Synchronous motors operate at the synchronous speed determined by the above equation. The speed of an induction motor is slightly less than the synchronous speed.
[edit] Example
A 4-pole motor that is connected directly to 60 Hz utility (mains) power would have a synchronous speed of 1800 RPM:
If the motor is an induction motor, the operating speed at full load will be about 1750 RPM.
If the motor is connected to a speed controller that provides power at 40 Hz, the synchronous speed would be 1200 RPM:
[edit] VFD system description
A variable frequency drive system generally consists of an AC motor, a controller and an operator interface.
[edit] VFD motor
The motor used in a VFD system is usually a three-phase induction motor. Some types of single-phase motors can be used, but three-phase motors are usually preferred. Various types of synchronous motors offer advantages in some situations, but induction motors are suitable for most purposes and are generally the most economical choice. Motors that are designed for fixed-speed mains voltage operation are often used, but certain enhancements to the standard motor designs offer higher reliability and better VFD performance.
[edit] VFD controller
Variable frequency drive controllers are solid state electronic power conversion devices. The usual design first converts AC input power to DC intermediate power using a rectifier bridge. The DC intermediate power is then converted to quasi-sinusoidal AC power using an inverter switching circuit. The rectifier is usually a three-phase diode bridge, but controlled rectifier circuits are also used. Since incoming power is converted to DC, many units will accept single-phase as well as three-phase input power (acting as a phase converter as well as a speed controller); however the unit must be derated when using single phase input as only part of the rectifier bridge is carrying the connected load.
As new types of semiconductor switches have been introduced, they have promptly been applied to inverter circuits at all voltage and current ratings for which suitable devices are available. Currently, insulated gate bipolar transistors (IGBTs) are used in most VFD inverter circuits.
AC motor characteristics require the applied voltage to be proportionally adjusted whenever the frequency is changed. For example, if a motor is designed to operate at 460 volts at 60 Hz, the applied voltage must be reduced to 230 volts when the frequency is reduced to 30 Hz. Thus the ratio of volts per hertz must be regulated to a constant value (460/60 = 7.67 in this case). For optimum performance, some further voltage adjustment may be necessary, but nominally constant volts per hertz is the general rule. The latest method used for adjusting the motor voltage is called pulse width modulation PWM. With PWM voltage control, the inverter switches are used to divide the quasi-sinusoidal output waveform into a series of narrow voltage pulses and modulate the width of the pulses.
An embedded microprocessor governs the overall operation of the VFD controller. The main microprocessor programming is in firmware that is inaccessible to the VFD user. However, some degree of configuration programming and parameter adjustment is usually provided so that the user can customize the VFD controller to suit specific motor and driven equipment requirements.
[edit] VFD operator interface
The operator interface provides a means for an operator to start and stop the motor and adjust the operating speed. Additional operator control functions might include reversing and switching between manual speed adjustment and automatic control from an external process control signal. The operator interface often includes an alphanumeric display and/or indication lights and meters to provide information about the operation of the drive. An operator interface keypad and display unit is often provided on the front of the VFD controller as shown in the photograph above. The keypad display can often be cable-connected and mounted a short distance from the VFD controller. Most are also provided with input and output (I/O) terminals for connecting pushbuttons, switches and other operator interface devices or control signals. A serial communications port is also often available to allow the VFD to be configured, adjusted, monitored and controlled using a computer.
[edit] VFD Operation
When a VFD starts a motor, it initially applies a low frequency and voltage to the motor. The starting frequency is typically 2 Hz or less. Starting at such a low frequency avoids the high inrush current that occurs when a motor is started by simply applying the utility (mains) voltage by turning on a switch. When a VFD starts, the applied frequency and voltage are increased at a controlled rate or ramped up to accelerate the load without drawing excessive current. This starting method typically allows a motor to develop 150% of its rated torque while drawing only 150% of its rated current. When a motor is simply switched on at full voltage, it initially draws at least 300% of its rated current while producing less than 150% of its rated torque. As the load accelerates, the available torque usually drops a little and then rises to a peak while the current remains very high until the motor approaches full speed. A VFD can be adjusted to produce a steady 150% starting torque from standstill right up to full speed while drawing only 150% current.
With a VFD, the stopping sequence is just the opposite as the starting sequence. The frequency and voltage applied to the motor are ramped down at a controlled rate. When the frequency approaches zero, the motor is shut off. A small amount of braking torque is available to help decelerate the load a little faster than it would stop if the motor were simply switched off and allowed to coast. Additional braking torque can be obtained by adding a braking circuit to dissipate the braking energy or return it to the power source.
[edit] Available VFD power ratings
Variable frequency drives are available with voltage and current ratings to match the majority of 3-phase motors that are manufactured for operation from utility (mains) power. VFD controllers designed to operate at 110 volts to 690 volts are often classified as low voltage units. Low voltage units are typically designed for use with motors rated to deliver 0.2kW or 1/4 horsepower (Hp) up to at least 750kW or 1000Hp. Medium voltage VFD controllers are designed to operate at 2400/4160 volts(60Hz), 3300 volts(50Hz) or up to 10kV. In some applications a step up Transformer is placed between a low voltage drive and a medium voltage load. Medium voltage units are typically designed for use with motors rated to deliver 375kW or 500Hp and above. Medium voltage drives rated above 7kV and 5000 or 10,000Hp should probably be considered to be one-of-a-kind (one-off) designs.
[edit] Brushless DC motor drives
Much of the same logic contained in large, powerful VFDs is also embedded in small brushless DC motors. In this case, the chopper usually converts a low DC voltage (such as 12 volts) to the three-phase current used to drive the electromagnets that turn the permanent magnet rotor.
