United States occupation of Haiti
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
The United States occupation of Haïti began on July 28, 1915 and ended in mid-August, 1934.
Contents |
[edit] Causes
The instability in Haïti provided a potential opening for German influence during the ongoing World War I. In addition, it is alleged that a popular uprising against Haïtian dictator Jean Vilbrun Guillaume Sam threatened American business interests in the country (such as HASCO). In response, American President Woodrow Wilson sent 330 U.S. Marines to Port-au-Prince on July 28, 1915. The specific order from the Secretary of the Navy to the invasion commander, Admiral William Deville Bundy, was to "protect American and foreign" interests. Within six weeks, representatives from the United States controlled Haïtian customs houses and administrative institutions. For the next nineteen years, Haïti's powerful neighbor to the north guided and governed the country. During this period, the government of Haïti was effectively under the control of the U.S. Marines.
[edit] Government and opposition
Representatives from the United States wielded veto power over all governmental decisions in Haïti, and Marine Corps commanders served as administrators in the provinces. Local institutions, however, continued to be run by Haïtians, as was required under policies put in place during the presidency of Woodrow Wilson.
Opposition to the Occupation began immediately after the Marines entered Haïti in 1915. The rebels (called "cacos" by the U.S. Marines) vehemently tried to resist American control of Haïti. In response, the Haïtian and American governments began a vigorous campaign to disband the rebel armies. Perhaps the best-known account of this skirmishing comes from Marine Major Smedley Butler, who won a Medal of Honor for his exploits, and went on to serve as commanding officer of the Haitian Gendarmerie. (He later expressed his disapproval of the U.S. intervention in his book, "War is a Racket".)
Philippe Sudré Dartiguenave, the mulatto president of the Senate, agreed to accept the presidency of Haïti after several other candidates had refused on principle. In 1917, President Dartiguenave dissolved the legislature after its members refused to approve a constitution written by Assistant Secretary of the Navy Franklin D. Roosevelt. However, a referendum subsequently approved the new constitution in 1918 (by a vote of 98,225 to 768). While generally a liberal document, the constitution allowed foreigners to purchase land. Jean-Jacques Dessalines had forbidden land ownership by foreigners, and since 1804, most Haïtians had viewed foreign ownership as anathema.
[edit] Effects of the occupation on Haïti
The occupation by the United States had several significant effects on Haïti. An early period of unrest culminated in a 1918 rebellion by up to 40,000 former cacos and other disgruntled people. The scale of the uprising overwhelmed the Gendarmerie, but Marine reinforcements helped put down the revolt at an estimated cost of 2,000 Haïtian lives.
Thereafter, order prevailed to a degree that most Haïtians had never witnessed. The order, however, was imposed largely by white foreigners with deep-seated racial prejudices and disdain for the notion of self-determination by inhabitants of less-developed nations. Such attitudes particularly dismayed Haiti's mulatto elite, who had heretofore believed in their innate superiority over the black masses.
The white American occupiers, however, did not distinguish among Haïtians, regardless of their skin tone, level of education, or sophistication. Their intolerance provoked indignation and resentment — and eventually a racial pride that was reflected in the work of a new generation of Haïtian historians, ethnologists, writers, artists, and others, many of whom later became active in politics and government. Still, as Haïtians united in their reaction to the racism of the occupying forces, the mulatto elite managed to dominate the country's bureaucracy and to strengthen its role in national affairs.
The occupation greatly improved some of Haïti's infrastructure. Roads were improved and expanded through the use of forced labor gangs. This violent form of "corvée labor" — with chain gangs, and armed guards permitted to shoot anyone who fled compulsory service — was widely regarded as tantamount to slavery.
The education system was re-designed from the ground up; however, this involved the destruction of the existing system of "Liberal Arts" education inherited (and adapted) from the French. Due to its emphasis on vocational training, the American system that replaced the French was despised by the elite. Thus, both of the major programs instituted by the government of occupation antagonized the Haïtian populace: the use of forced labor enraged the lower classes of rural Haïti, and the educational "reforms" enraged the urban elite.
[edit] Effects of the occupation on U.S. politics
The occupation of Haïti continued after World War I, despite the embarrassment that it caused Woodrow Wilson at the Paris Peace Conference of 1919 and the scrutiny of a congressional inquiry in 1922. By 1930, President Herbert Hoover had become concerned about the effects of the occupation, particularly after a December 1929 incident in Les Cayes, in which Marines killed at least ten Haïtian peasants during a march to protest local economic conditions. Hoover appointed two commissions to study the situation. A former governor general of the Philippines, William Cameron Forbes, headed the more prominent of the two.
The Forbes Commission praised the material improvements that the U.S. administration had wrought, but it criticized the exclusion of Haïtians from positions of real authority in the government and the constabulary, which had come to be known as the Garde d'Haïti. In more general terms, the commission further asserted that "the social forces that created [instability] still remain — poverty, ignorance, and the lack of a tradition or desire for orderly free government."
The Hoover administration did not fully implement the recommendations of the Forbes Commission; but United States withdrawal was under way by 1932, when Hoover lost the presidency to Franklin Roosevelt, the presumed author of the most recent Haïtian constitution. On a visit to Cap Haïtien in July 1934, Roosevelt reaffirmed an August 1933 disengagement agreement. The last contingent of U.S. Marines departed in mid-August, after a formal transfer of authority to the Garde.
As in other countries occupied by the United States in the early 20th century, the local (U.S.-trained) military was often the only cohesive and effective institution left in the wake of withdrawal. This sowed the seeds for a sequence of military-backed dictatorships, all attached to American patronage, which would define the next 50 years of Haïti's history.
[edit] Further reading
- Renda, Mary A. (2001). Taking Haïti: Military Occupation and the Culture of U.S. Imperialism, 1915-1940. University of North Carolina Press. ISBN 0-8078-4938-3.
- Schmidt, Hans (1995). United States occupation of Haïti (1915-1934). Rutgers University Press. ISBN 0-8135-2203-X.
- Harper's Magazine advertisement: Why Should You Worry About Haïti? by the Haïti-Santo Domingo Independence Society
