Turgut Reis
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Turgut Reis (1485-1565) was a Turkish privateer and Ottoman admiral as well as Bey of Algiers; Beylerbey of the Mediterranean; and first Bey later Pasha of Tripoli. Known in different languages under such names as Dragut or Darghouth, the original name in Turkey is Turgut Reis (reis = admiral) or less commonly Torgut Reis as his name appears in several old Turkish and foreign resources.
[edit] Early career
Turgut was born near Bodrum, on the Aegean coast of Turkey, as the son of a Turkish farmer named Veli. At the age of 12 he was noticed by an Ottoman army commander for his extraordinary talent in using spears and arrows, and was recruited by him as an apprentice, with the consent of his parents, to be trained as a cannoneer and master of siege artillery, which would play an important role in Turgut's future success and reputation as a superb naval tactician. Turgut accompanied his master in the Ottoman conquest of Egypt in 1517 and participated in the fighting as a cannoneer. He further improved his skills in this field during his presence in Cairo. Following the death of his master, Turgut went to Alexandria and began his career as a sailor after joining the fleet of Sinan Reis, immediately becoming one of the favourite crewmen of the famous corsair due to his success in hitting enemy vessels with cannons. Turgut soon mastered the skills of seamanship and became the captain of a brigantine, while given 1/4 of its ownership. After several successful campaigns, he became the sole owner of the brigantine. Turgut later became the captain and owner of a galliot, and arming it with the most advanced cannons of that period, he started to operate in the Eastern Mediterranean, especially targeting the shipping routes between Venice and the Aegean islands belonging to the Repubblica Serenissima.
In 1520 he joined the fleet of Barbarossa Hayreddin Pasha, who would become his protector and best friend. Turgut was soon promoted to the rank of chief lieutenant by Barbarossa and was assigned with the command of 12 galliots. In 1526 Turgut Reis captured the fortress of Capo Passero in Sicily. Between 1526 and 1533 he landed several times at the ports of the Kingdom of Sicily and the Kingdom of Naples, while intercepting the ships which sailed between Spain and Italy, capturing many of them. In May 1533, commanding 4 fustas and 18 barques, Turgut Reis captured 2 Venetian galleys near the island of Aegina.
In June and July 1538 he accompanied Barbarossa on his pursuit against Andrea Doria in the Adriatic Sea, while capturing several fortresses on the coasts of Albania as well as the Gulf of Preveza and the Island of Lefkada. In August 1538 Turgut Reis captured Candia in Crete as well as several other Venetian possessions in the Aegean Sea.
[edit] Battle of Preveza
In September 1538, with 20 galleys and 10 galliots, Turgut Reis commanded one wing of the Ottoman fleet that defeated the Holy League under the command of Andrea Doria at the Battle of Preveza. During the battle, with two of his galliots, he captured the Papal galley under the command of Giambattista Dovizi, the knight who was also the abbot of Bibbiena, taking him and his crew as prisoners.
In 1539, commanding a total of 36 galleys and galliots, Turgut Reis recaptured Castelnuovo from the Venetians, who had taken the city back from the Ottomans. During the combat he sank 2 Venetian galleys and captured 3 others. Still in 1539, while landing at the ports of Corfu, he encountered 12 Venetian galleys under the command of Francesco Pasqualigo and captured the galley of Antonio da Canal. He later landed at Crete and fought against the Venetian cavalry forces under the command of Antonio Calbo.
[edit] Governor of Djerba
Later that year, when Sinan Reis, the Governor of Djerba, was appointed by Suleiman the Magnificent as the new Commander-in-Chief of the Ottoman Red Sea Fleet based in Suez, Turgut Reis was appointed as his successor and became the new Governor of Djerba.
In early 1540 Turgut Reis captured several Genoese ships off the coast of Santa Margherita Ligure. In April 1540, commanding 2 galleys and 13 galliots, he landed at Gozo and sacked the island. He later landed at Pantelleria and raided the coasts of Sicily and Spain with a force of 25 ships, inflicting so much damage that Andrea Doria was ordered to chase him with a force of 81 galleys by Charles V. From there, Turgut Reis sailed to the Tyrrhenian Sea and bombarded the southern ports of Corsica, most notably Palasca. He later captured and sacked the nearby Island of Capraia.
[edit] Captivity and freedom
Turgut Reis later sailed back towards Corsica and docked his ships at Girolata on the western shores of the island. Taken by surprise while repairing his ships at the port, Turgut Reis and his men were attacked by the combined forces of Giannettino Doria (Andrea Doria's nephew), Giorgio Doria and Gentile Virginio Orsini. Turgut Reis was captured and was forced to work as a galley slave in the ship of Giannettino Doria for nearly four years before being imprisoned in Genoa. Barbarossa offered to pay ransom for his release but it was rejected. In 1544, when Barbarossa was returning from France with 210 ships sent by Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent to assist his ally Francois I against Spain, he appeared before Genoa, laying siege to the city and forcing the Genoese to negotiate for the release of Turgut Reis. Barbarossa was invited by Andrea Doria to discuss the issue in his palace located at the Fassolo district of Genoa, and the two imperial admirals reached an agreement for the release of Turgut Reis in exchange of 3,500 gold ducats.
Barbarossa gave Turgut his spare flagship and the command of several other vessels, and in that same year Turgut Reis landed at Bonifacio in Corsica and captured the city, inflicting particular damage on Genoese interests. Still in 1544 he assaulted the Island of Gozo and fought against the forces of knight Giovanni Ximenes while capturing several Maltese ships which brought precious cargo from Sicily. In June 1545 he raided the coasts of Sicily and bombarded several ports on the Tyrrhenian Sea. In July 1545 he captured the Isle of Capraia and landed at the coasts of Liguria and the Italian Riviera with a force of 15 galleys and fustas. He sacked Monterosso and Corniglia, and later landed at Menarola and Riomaggiore. In the following days he landed at the Gulf of La Spezia and captured Rapallo, Pegli and Levanto. In 1546 he captured Mahdia, Sfax, Sousse and Al Munastir in Tunisia, using Mahdia as a base to assault the Knights of St. John in Malta. In April 1546 he raided the coasts of Liguria. In May 1546, still in Liguria, he captured Laigueglia, a province of Savona, with a force of 1000 Turks. He later captured Andora and arrested the podesta of the town. There he and his troops rested for a brief period, before resuming their assault on the Italian Riviera and landing at San Lorenzo al Mare. From there he once again sailed towards Malta and captured the island of Gozo. In June 1546 Andrea Doria was appointed by Charles V to force Turgut Reis away from Malta, and Doria based his forces at the Isle of Favignana. The two seamen, however, did not encounter, as Turgut Reis had sailed to Toulon in August 1546, staying there for several months and letting his men have some rest in the security of a French port which was often used as a base by the Turkish naval forces due to the alliance between France and the Ottoman Empire.
[edit] Commander-in-Chief of Ottoman Naval Forces in the Mediterranean
After Barbarossa's death in July 1546, Turgut succeeded him as supreme commander of Ottoman naval forces in the Mediterranean. In July 1547 he once again assaulted Malta with a force of 23 galleys and galliots, after hearing the news that the Kingdom of Naples was shaken by the revolt against Viceroy Don Pietro of Toledo, which would make a naval support from there to Malta rather unlikely. Turgut Reis landed his troops at Marsa Scirocco, the extreme southern point of the island which faces the shores of Africa. From there the Turkish troops quickly marched towards the vicinity of the Church of Santa Caterina. The guards of the church tower escaped as soon as they saw the forces of Turgut Reis, which prevented them from igniting the tub of gunpowder; a common method which was used back then to warn the local inhabitants during such attacks. After sacking the island, Turgut Reis headed towards Capo Passero in Sicily, where he captured the galley of Giulio Cicala, son of Duke Vincenzo Cicala. He later sailed to the Aeolian Islands, and at Salina Island he captured a Maltese trade ship with precious cargo. From there he sailed to Puglia and towards the end of July 1547 he assaulted the city of Salve. He later sailed to Calabria, forcing the local population to flee towards the safety of the mountains as the Turks marched northwards. From there he went to Corsica and captured many ships.
[edit] Bey of Algiers
In 1548 he was appointed as the new Beylerbey (Chief Governor) of Algiers by Suleiman the Magnificent. In that same year he ordered the construction of a quadrireme galley at the naval arsenal of Djerba, which he started using in 1549. In August 1548 he landed at Castellamare di Stabia on the Bay of Naples and captured the city along with the nearby Pozzuoli. From there he went to Procida. A few days later, he captured a Spanish galley loaded with troops and gold at Capo Miseno near Procida. In the same days he captured the famous Maltese galley, La Caterinetta, at the Gulf of Naples, along with its precious cargo of 70,000 gold ducats which were collected by the Knights of St. John from the churches of France with the aim of strengthening the defenses of Tripoli, which was under Maltese control back then.
In May 1549 he set sail towards Liguria with 21 galleys and on July he assaulted Rapallo, later replenishing his ships with water and other supplies at San Fruttuoso. From there he sailed to Portofino and landed at the port, before appearing at San Remo where he captured a Catalan galley from Barcelona which was heading towards Naples. From there he first sailed towards Corsica and later towards Calabria where he assaulted the city of Palmi.
In February 1550, sailing with a force of 36 galleys, he recaptured Mahdia along with Al Munastir, Sousse and most of Tunisia. In May 1550 he assaulted the ports of Sardinia and Spain and landed at their coasts with a force of 6 galleys and 14 galliots. Still in May he tried to capture Bonifacio in Corsica but couldn't succeed. On his way back to Tunisia, he stopped at Gozo for replenishing his ships with water and for gaining useful information on the activities of the Maltese Knights. He later sailed towards Liguria.
In June 1550, while Turgut Reis was sailing near Genoa, Andrea Doria and Bailiff Claude de la Sengle of the Maltese Knights attacked Mahdia in Tunisia. In the meantime, Turgut Reis was busy assaulting and sacking Rapallo for a third time, before raiding the coasts of Spain. He then sailed to the Tyrrhenian Sea and towards the beginning of July landed at the western shores of Sardinia, before returning back to Djerba, where he learned that Doria and Claude de la Sengle had been attacking Mahdia and Tunis. He collected a force of 4500 troops and 60 sipahis and marched on Mahdia to assist the local resistance, but couldn't succeed. He returned back to Djerba with his troops.
In September 1550 Mahdia surrendered to the joint Spanish-Sicilian-Maltese force. In the meantime, Turgut Reis was repairing his ships at the beach of Djerba. On October, Andrea Doria suddenly appeared with his fleet at Djerba and blocked the entrance of the island's lagoon with his ships, trapping the beached galleys of Turgut Reis inside the Channel of Cantera. Turgut Reis, with the help of his crewmen, had all his ships dragged overland through hastily dug canals and on a heavily greased boardway to the other side of the island and sailed to Istanbul, capturing two galleys on the way, one Genoese and one Sicilian, which were en route to Djerba in order to assist the forces of Doria. Prince Abu Beker, son of the Sultan of Tunis who was an ally of Spain, was on the Genoese galley.
After arriving in Istanbul, Turgut Reis, authorized by Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent, mobilized a fleet of 112 galleys and two galleasses with 12,000 Janissaries, and in 1551 set sail towards the Adriatic Sea and bombarded the Venetian ports, inflicting serious damage on Venetian shipping. In May 1551 he landed at Sicily and bombarded the eastern shores of the island, most notably the city of Augusta, as a revenge for the Viceroy of Sicily's role in the invasion and destruction of Mahdia, where most inhabitants, including Turks, were massacred by the joint Spanish-Sicilian-Maltese force. He later attempted to capture Malta, landing at the southern port of Marsa Muscietto. He laid siege to the citadels of Birgu and Senglea, and later went north and assaulted Mdina, but lifted the siege after realizing that it was impossible to capture the island with the number of troops in hand. Although the effort did not succeed, Turgut Reis ravaged the neighboring towns and, in July 1551, captured the island and castle of Gozo, along with 4000 prisoners, including high ranking officials.
[edit] Bey of Tripoli
In August 1551 Turgut Reis attacked and captured Tripoli (Libya), which had been a possession of the Maltese Knights since 1530. Gaspare de Villers, the commander of the fort, was arrested, along with other prominent Maltese knights of Spanish and French origin. However, with the intervention of the French ambassador in Istanbul, Gabriel d'Aramont, the French knights were released.
As reward, Tripoli and the surrounding territory along with the title of Sanjak Bey (Province Governor) was given to Turgut Reis by Suleiman the Magnificent.
In September 1551, Turgut Reis sailed to Liguria and captured the city of Taggia, before capturing other ports of the Italian Riviera, after Turkish troops landed at the beach of Riva Brigoso. Later that year, he returned back to Tripoli and sought to extend his territory through land, capturing the entire region of Misratah all the way to Zuwarah and Djerba to the west. Turning inland, he enhanced his territory until reaching Gebel.
[edit] Battle of Ponza and campaigns in the West Mediterranean
In 1552 Sultan Suleiman appointed Turgut Reis commander-in-chief of the Ottoman fleet which he dispatched to Italy (on the basis of a treaty between the Sultan and King Henry II of France). Turgut Reis first landed at Augusta and Licata in Sicily, before capturing the island and castle of Pantelleria. In July 1552 he landed at Taormina and later bombarded and disabled the ports on the Gulf of Policastro. He later landed at Palmi and captured the city, before sailing to the Gulf of Naples in order to meet with the other branch of the Ottoman fleet under the command of Sinan Pasha, and the French fleet under the command of Polin de la Garde. After arriving at the meeting location, Turgut Reis anchored his ships off the beach of Scauri, near Formia. There he met with the fleet of Sinan Pasha but their French ally didn't show up in time. After waiting for several days, Sinan Pasha decided to return back to Istanbul, following an order by Suleiman I to do so in case of a delay or postponement of the meeting. Turgut Reis convinced Sinan Pasha to join him, and their combined fleet bombarded the ports of Sardinia and Corsica, before capturing the Isle of Ponza. From there the Turkish fleet sailed towards Lazio and bombarded the ports belonging to the Papal States and the Kingdom of Naples, even though Henry II, King of France, had guaranteed the Pope that the Turkish fleet would not damage the Vatican's possessions. Due to bad weather, however, Turgut Reis and Sinan Pasha sailed back to the Gulf of Naples. There the Turks landed at Massa Lubrense and Sorrento, capturing the cities. They later captured Pozzuoli including all the coastline until Minturno and Nola. In response, Andrea Doria set sail from Genoa with a force of 40 galleys and headed towards Naples. When the two fleets first encountered off Naples, Turgut Reis managed to capture 7 galleys, with colonel Madruzzi and many German soldiers of the Holy Roman Empire on board.
The two fleets later went southwards, where, on 5 August 1552, Turgut Reis defeated the Spanish-Italian fleet under the command of Andrea Doria at the Battle of Ponza.
[edit] Beylerbey of the Mediterranean
Following this victory, Suleiman I appointed him Beylerbey (Chief Regional Governor) of the Mediterranean Sea.
In May 1553 Turgut Reis set sail from the Aegean Sea with a force of 60 galleys and captured Crotone and Castello in Calabria, and from there marched inlands. Later he landed at Sicily and sacked most of the island until stopping at Licata for replenishing his ships with water. Afterwards he assaulted Sciacca and Modica in southern Sicily. From there he went to the Isle of Tavolara and Sardinia, later headed towards Porto Ercole and landed at the coast, before setting sail towards the Island of Elba, where the Turks landed and captured Marciana Marina, Rio and Capoliveri. From there he sailed to Corsica and took Bonifacio, Bastia and Calvi on behalf of France, then ally of the Ottoman Empire, which payed him 30,000 gold ducats for the expense of ammunition in the conquest. Leaving Corsica, Turgut Reis returned to Elba and attempted to capture Piombino and Portoferraio, but eventually gave up and captured the Isle of Pianosa and recaptured the island and castle of Capri (previously captured by Barbarossa back in 1535) before returning back to Istanbul.
In 1554 he set sail from the Bosphorus with 60 galleys and passed the winter in Chios. From there he sailed to the Adriatic Sea and landed at Vieste near Foggia, capturing and sacking the city. He then sailed towards Dalmatia and bombarded the port of Dubrovnik (Ragusa), capital of the maritime Republic of Ragusa. In August 1554 he landed at Orbetello and raided the coasts of Tuscany.
The following year, in July 1555, he landed at Capo Vaticano in Calabria, and from there marched to Ceramica and San Lucido, bombarding these cities, before capturing Paola and Santo Noceto. He then sailed to Elba and captured the city of Populonia before assaulting Piombino. From there he sailed to Corsica and captured the city of Bastia, taking 6000 prisoners. He later assaulted Calvi before setting sail towards Sardinia and bombarding the ports of the island. From there he sailed towards Liguria and landed at Ospedaletti, capturing the city and the coastline around it. He later landed at San Remo before returning back to Istanbul.
[edit] Pasha of Tripoli
In March 1556 Turgut Reis was promoted to the rank of Pasha of Tripoli. There, he strengthened the walls of the citadel surrounding the city and built a gunpowder bastion (Dar el Barud). He also strengthened the defenses of the port and edificed the Turgut (Dragut) Fortress in place of the old Fortress of San Pietro. In July 1556 he once again set sail and landed at Cape Santa Maria at the Isle of Lampedusa, where he captured a Venetian ship which transported ammunition and weapons for the defense of Malta. He later landed at Liguria and captured Bergeggi and San Lorenzo. In December 1556 he captured Gafsa in Tunisia and added it to his territory.
In the summer of 1557 he left the Bosphorus with a fleet of 60 galleys, and arriving at the Gulf of Taranto, he landed at Calabria and assaulted Cariati, capturing the city. He later landed at the ports of Puglia.
In 1558 he added Gharyan, about 70 miles south of Tripoli, to his territory. He later defeated the Beni Oulid dynasty with a force of janissaries and added their territories to the Ottoman Empire. He later took Taorga, Misratah and Tagiora, before recapturing the Island of Djerba and adding it to his province. In June 1558 he joined the fleet of Piyale Pasha at the Strait of Messina, and the two admirals captured Reggio Calabria, sacking the city. From there, Turgut Reis went to the Aeolian Islands and captured several of them, before landing at Amalfi, the Gulf of Salerno, and capturing Massa Lubrense, Cantone and Sorrento. He later landed at Torre del Greco, the coasts of Tuscany, and Piombino. In August 1558 he captured several ships off Malta. In September 1558 he joined Piyale Pasha and the two admirals assaulted the coasts of Spain before capturing Minorca and inflicting particular damage on the island's ports.
In 1559 he repelled a Spanish attack on Algiers and put down a revolt in Tripoli. In that same year he captured a Maltese frigate near Messina and from the crew on board he learned that the knights were preparing for a major attack on Tripoli, and decided to sail back there and strengthen the city's defenses.
[edit] Battle of Djerba
In the meantime, he had made enemies of many of the nominally Ottoman, but practically independent rulers in Tunis and the adjoining hinterland, and several of them concluded an alliance in 1560 with Viceroy Cerda of Sicily, who had orders from King Philip II of Spain to join his forces in an effort to capture Tripoli. This campaign ended in failure when the Ottoman fleet under the command of Piyale Pasha and Turgut Reis defeated the fleet of the Holy League of Philip II in the Battle of Djerba.
In March 1561 Turgut Reis and Uluç Ali Reis captured Vincenzo Cicala and Luigi Osorio near the Isle of Marettimo. In June 1561 he landed at the Isle of Stromboli. In July 1561 he captured 7 Maltese galleys under the command of knight Guimarens, whom he later freed in exchange of 3,000 gold ducats. Turgut Reis later stopped at Gozo for replenishing his galleys with water and later sailed back to Tripoli. In August 1561 he laid siege to the city of Naples and blocked the port with 35 galleys.
In April 1562 he started preparing for the Siege of Malta and sent scout ships to explore all corners of the island. Still in 1562 he laid siege to Oran which was under Spanish control.
In 1563 he landed at Granada and captured the city along with 4000 prisoners. He later landed at Málaga. In April 1563 he supported the fleet of Salih Reis with 20 galleys during the Turkish siege of Oran, bombarding the Fortress of Mers-el-Kebir. In September 1563 he sailed to Naples and captured 6 ships near the Island of Capri, which carried valuable goods and Spanish soldiers. He later landed at the Chiaia neighbourhood of Naples and captured it. From there he sailed to Liguria and Sardinia, raiding the coastal towns, particularly Oristano, Marcellino and Ercolento. He then sailed to the Adriatic Sea and landed at the coasts of Puglia and Abruzzo. He later landed twice at San Giovanni near Messina with a force of 28 galleys. In October 1563 he sailed towards Capo Passero in Sicily and later landed at Gozo, where he briefly fought against the knights.
In 1565 he urged Suleiman the Magnificent to recapture La Goulette from the Spaniards instead of attacking Malta, but failed to change his mind.
[edit] Siege of Malta and Death
When Sultan Suleiman ordered the Siege of Malta in 1565, Turgut Reis joined the Ottoman forces with 1600 men and 15 ships (13 galleys and 2 galliots) on May 31. He landed his troops at the entrance of Marsa Muscietto, a cape towards the northwest of the island which today carries the name of Turgut Reis (Dragut). There he met with Mustafa Pasha, the commander of the Ottoman land forces, and advised him to first capture the Castle of Gozo and the old city center. He also urged Mustafa to concentrate the cannon fire on Fort Saint Elmo, which controlled the entrance of the Grand Harbour and seemed weaker than other forts. The main square of the city was bombarded with 30 cannons under the command of Turgut Reis. In only 24 hours the Turks fired 6000 cannon shots. Realizing that the fort and the city could still communicate with each other, Turgut Reis ordered a complete siege of the fortress with the aim of isolating it from the city. He died, however, on 23 June 1565, on the ramparts of Fort Saint Elmo. On 17 June 1565, during the bombardment of the fort, a cannon shot from Fort Saint Angelo across the Grand Harbour struck the ground close to the Turkish battery. Debris from the impact mortally injured Turgut Reis, who lived a few more days, just long enough to hear the news of the capture of Fort Saint Elmo. He was buried in Tripoli.
[edit] Legacy
Several warships of the Turkish Navy have been named after Turgut Reis.
Turgut Reis continues to enjoy great fame and respect in Turkey, where the city of his birth is named Turgutreis after him.
[edit] External links
- Privateering History: Dragut Reis
- Capraia Island and Dragut
- Dragut Rais: Barbary Corsair
- Turgutreis: Birth Place of Turgut Reis
[edit] Literature
- E. Hamilton Currey, Sea-Wolves of the Mediterranean,, London, 1910
- Bono, Salvatore: Corsari nel Mediterraneo (Corsairs in the Mediterranean), Oscar Storia Mondadori. Perugia, 1993.
