Succession to Muhammad
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- For the book by Wilferd Madelung, see The Succession to Muhammad.
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Succession to Muhammad concerns the different viewpoints and beliefs that are held in relation to the succession to the leadership of the Muslim community, or ummah, after the death of the Islamic prophet Muhammad
Muhammad died in 632 CE. in Medina following a brief illness. After an initial period of confusion, command of the Muslim community apparently passed to Abu Bakr, Muhammad's father-in-law and one of the leaders of the Ummah. In later centuries there was sharp disagreement as to how this transition came about and whether or not it was legitimate.
The Shi'a, or Shi'at Ali, the party of Ali, believe that Muhammad chose his cousin and son-in-law, Ali ibn Abi Talib, in accordance with God's command, making Ali the true successor. Other Muslim groups disagree. The largest denomination in Islam, the Sunni, hold that Abu Bakr was chosen by the community, and that this method of choosing or electing leaders was endorsed by Muhammad.
This article provides a summary of the sources and arguments for particular versions of the succession to Muhammad. It is not intended to provide a forum for arbitration or discussion as to who should have succeeded Muhammad.
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[edit] Problems with the historical record
There is no known contemporary written account of the events of 632. Instead, the events were communicated through oral tradition for more than a century; the first written records date from a period long after the disputed succession. Indeed, they date from the beginning of the Abbasid line of caliphs in 750, who had overthrown the previous Umayyad line reportedly for their misdeeds, and claimed authority as descendants of Muhammad's uncle Abbas.
The histories were thus composed in a sectarian milieu, for intensely political purposes. They have since been interpreted and elaborated by several Islamic groups, including the various Sunni and the Shi'a sects. For these reasons it is extremely difficult to present an accurate historical account of the succession without descending into the thick of partisan controversy. See also Historiography of early Islam and Historical Shi'a-Sunni relations.
[edit] An overview of events
The matter of Muhammad's successor was probably a relatively minor consideration when Muhammad and his followers had been a small, persecuted community. Muhammad did not hold what may now be called civil authority, and had no significant estate to bequeath. He had proclaimed himself a prophet, but it was not at all clear that a prophet must always have a successor. However, after Muhammad and his followers emigrated from Mecca to Medina in the Hijra, and Muhammad emerged as the political leader of a community expanding rapidly in size and power, the succession issue became increasingly important.
The debate and controversy as to what if any arrangements Muhammad made for a successor have continued to this day.
Similarly contentious are the various accounts of the events which immediately surrounded his death. Muhammad did not have a long illness; he died merely two weeks after falling ill. Following his death, there appears to have been a period of suspense or, according to some accounts, confusion. Umar, one of his lieutenants, is said to have been overcome with grief, denying that Muhammad could have died, and refusing to allow the burial of the body. Sunni and Shi'a Muslims debate whether this grief was genuine, or whether it may have been a play for time while succession was determined.
Virtually all authorities agree that after Muhammad's death, the differences that had previously lain dormant amongst the Meccan immigrants, the Muhajirun, and the Medinan converts, the Ansar, threatened to break out and split the Ummah. The Ansar met in Medina in a house or shed, a saqifah, to discuss whom they would support as their new leader. When Abu Bakr was informed of the meeting, he, Umar and a few others rushed to prevent the Ansar from making a premature decision. Accounts of this meeting vary greatly. All agree that during the meeting Umar declared that Abu Bakr should be the new leader, and declared his allegiance to Abu Bakr.
After the meeting at Saqifah, the Muslims who were not present had to be informed of the decision taken by the group. Most accounts agree that this process took several months, and that a number of them refused to swear allegiance to Abu Bakr. Many of them believed that Ali ibn Abi Talib, was the obvious choice for leader. Whether or not the process involved violence and intimidation, and whether or not Ali swore allegiance willingly to Abu Bakr have remained enduring controversies.
[edit] The Sunni view of the succession
Sunni Muslims relate various hadith, or oral traditions, in which Muhammad is said to have recommended shura, or consultation, as the best method for making community decisions. In this view of the succession, he did not nominate a successor because he expected that the community would choose the new leader — as was the custom in Arabia at the time. They hold the view that Muhammad indicated the position of Abu Bakr as successor many times through his actions and positions he had assigned him during his lifetime. Such as making him the Imam of the Prayer or to make rulings in his absence and even literally saying that he feared someone would be desirous of power but he knows that God (and the Muslims) would make sure Abu Bakr became the next caliph (See Hadiths of Abu Bakr's succession)
[edit] Ghadir Khumm
There is one hadith in the collection known as the Musnad which affirms that Muhammad made a speech at Ghadir Khumm, in which he said, "Of whomsoever I am the mawla, Ali is his mawla". The word mawla has many meanings in Arabic. In this case, say the Sunni exegetes, Muhammad was merely saying that anyone who was his friend should also befriend Ali. This was a response to some soldiers who had complained of Ali [1]. A similar incident is described in Ibn Ishaq's sira; there the prophet is reputed to have said, "Do not blame Ali, for he is too scrupulous in the things of God, or the way of God, to be blamed." (Guillaume p. 650) Another reason for which Ali may have been disliked by many Muslims was that although he was already married to Fatima, the daughter of the prophet, Ali was also demanding the hand of Abu Jahl's daughter. (See Hadith of loving and hating Ali and Sahih Bukhari 5:57:76)
The Sunni argue that it is a mistake to interpret an expression of friendship and support as the appointment of a successor. If Muhammad had wished to appoint Ali, surely he would have done so in Medina, in front of all the Muslim notables. The fact that there even was a dispute over the leadership after the prophet's death is sufficient proof that no one had interpreted Muhammad's words as a binding appointment.
Sunnis further argue that Ali himself chose not to ask to be appointed as the Caliph. Abbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib told Ali that they should go ask the prophet who would take over the caliphate upon his death, but Ali argued that if the prophet decided not to pick him even for just this first Caliphate than the Muslims would never substantiate his claim and so Ali didn't ask the prophet. (Sahih Bukhari 5:59:728)
[edit] Muhammad's last illness
Muhammad asked permission from his wives to be taken to Aisha's apartment to be nursed and died with his head in her lap. Aisha kept his relatives away from him, on the argument that they were tormenting him with useless remedies. Reportedly, before he died, Muhammad made a gesture of enormous trust in Abu Bakr by asking him to lead the prayers in the mosque as imam — a highly visible role virtually always undertaken, when possible, by Muhammad himself. Historically, the imam of a mosque has always been a leader in his local Muslim community; Sunni Muslims see Muhammad as recognizing Abu Bakr's leadership when he appointed Abu Bakr an imam. [2]
[edit] The events at Saqifah
Sunni accounts of Saqifah differ from that of Shia accounts as aforementioned. It is said that the tribe of Ansar was having a meeting to discuss the issue of Caliphate. When the news of the meeting spread, Abu Bakr, Umar Ibn-Alkhattab, and Abu Ubayda rushed to the scene. Abu Bakr reminded Sa'd, the candidate for caliphate from the Ansar, that the Prophet said the caliphate should be from within the Quraysh to which Sa'd agreed. After further discussion and intending to bring the meeting a close, Abu Bakr suggested to the gathering that the people should give their bayah to either Umar Ibn-Alkhattab or Abu Ubayda as both were capable men from Quraysh. Umar Ibn-Alkhattab immediately grabbed Abu Bakr's hand and gave him bay'ah causing the rest of the men at the gathering to become emotional and also give their bay'ah. However, even the accounts that agree that Saqifah was a falta, in Umar's words, a rushed and hasty decision, still stress that the decision at Saqifah would not have been binding upon Muslims unless they themselves had chosen to pledge fealty, to give their bay'ah, to Abu Bakr.
[edit] Ali's Hesitance
The events that took place at Saqifah caused Ali to become dismayed. His wife, Fatima, died six months after the Prophet and in between this time he did not give his bay'ah to Abu Bakr. Following the death of his wife, he went to reconcile the differences between him and Abu Bakr. He requested to meet him privately so that they may discuss the issues amongst themselves, upon hearing this Umar was hesitant to see Abu Bakr go alone in fear of ambush. At the meeting Ali expressed his unease over not being consulted in the matter of rulership in which he felt he had a right due to his kinship to the Prophet, although he made no claims to having actually been selected by the Prophet as a successor. The two also deliberated over the property left behind by the Prophet which Fatima, the daughter of the Prophet, had asked Abu Bakr to hand over to her as her rightful inheritance. Abu Bakr had cited a hadith in which the Prophet (Muhammad) said that the prophets do not leave inheritance. He told Ali in this meeting that he would spend what the Prophet left behind in that which is good. Drawing the meeting to a close, Ali promised that he would give his oath in public after the noon prayer (Zuhr).
The very next day, Abu Bakr ascended the pulpit after prayer and narrated the meeting between him and Ali. He explained to the people of Ali's reservations and pardoned his delay. On that Ali stood up gave his oath and addressed the gathering. He declared that he did not hold out in jealousy nor in protest but because he felt he had a genuine right in the affair of rulership and was not consulted. Upon hearing them both, "The Muslims then became friendly with 'Ali as he returned to what the people had done (i.e. giving the oath of allegiance to Abu Bakr)."[3]
[edit] The Shi'a view of the succession
The Shi'a believe that God has stated in the Quran that the world is never left without a vicegerent. They therefore believe that Muhammad, being one of God’s vicegerents, appointed a successor. They believe that God chose Ali to be the successor. They believe that before he died, Muhammad, in accordance with God’s will, indicated at various times, and in various ways, his trust and reliance upon Ali. Ali was not only his cousin, but the husband of his daughter Fatima, and the father of his beloved grandchildren Hasan and Husayn. Ali was a leader in battle, and often entrusted with command. He was left in charge of the community at Medina when Muhammad led a raid on Tabuk.
It is worthwhile noting that the terms "cousin" and "son-in-law" do not fully convey the closeness of the relationship between Muhammad and Ali. Ali's father was the late Abu Talib, Muhammad's uncle, foster father, and powerful protector. As a member of Abu Talib's family, Muhammad had in fact played the role of an elder brother and guardian to Ali — and Ali had, as a youth, been among the first to accept Islam. He was now a charismatic defender of the faith in his own right, and it was perhaps inevitable that some in the Muslim community assumed that Ali would claim a leadership position following Muhammad's death. In the end, however, it was Abu Bakr who assumed control of the Muslim community.
The Shia refer to these verses from the Qu'ran to make their argument on Qur'anic grounds: (5:55),(5:3),(5:67). They say that the verses refer to Ali, and the last two verses were revealed at Ghadir Khumm. (See Tabatabaei & Nasr 1979:177-178, or Shi'a for further details.)
[edit] Ghadir Khumm
In 632 CE, Muhammad made his last pilgrimage to the Kaaba. Some early accounts say that after finishing his pilgrimage, on his return to Medina, he and his followers stopped at a spring and waypoint called Ghadir Khumm. Here Muhammad delivered a speech to his assembled followers, in the course of which he said,
- "For whoever I am his master, Ali is his master."
According to the Shi'a, this hadith, Hadith-i ghadir, indicates the intent of the Prophet Muhammad. According to both Shi'a and Sunni hadiths there were up to 120,000 witnesses to this declaration. Among those present at this occasion was Umar ibn al-Khattāb and Abu Bakr. Sunnis claim that Muhammad was only reinforcing Ali is the friend of Muslims in the light of some opposition to him. The Shi'a claim that this was not the case as the Prophet’s address at Ghadir Khumm was ordained, like all his actions, by God, and that in fact the angel Gabriel informed him that if he did not perform this duty it would be as if he had not delivered the message at all. They argue that the immense weight placed on the Ghadir Khumm address was not merely to tell Muslims that Ali was their 'friend', but rather to indicate a succession preference, and that there would have been no reason for Muhammad to reinforce Ali's friendship to the community as he was already the most praised of Muhammad’s companions.
[edit] Muhammad's last illness
Soon after returning from this pilgrimage, Muhammad fell ill. He was nursed in the apartments of his wife Aisha, the daughter of Abu Bakr.
The Shi'a also claim that most of the prominent men among the Muslims, expecting Muhammad's death and an ensuing struggle for power, disobeyed his orders to join a military expedition bound for Syria. They stayed in Medina, waiting for Muhammad's death and their chance to seize power.
According to Ali's relative and partisan, Ibn al-Abbas, the dying Muhammad said that he wished to write a letter — or wished to have a letter written — detailing his wishes for his community. Umar insisted that the Qur'an was guidance enough. According to the Shi'a, Umar also claimed that Muhammad was ill and delirious and that his wishes could therefore be ignored. Those in the sickroom began quarrelling and the prophet, irritated by the noise, ordered them all to leave him.
When Muhammad died, Umar seemed to go mad with grief. He claimed that Muhammad was not dead, that he would return. Abu Bakr, who had just returned to Medina, then spoke sharply to him and Umar repented. The Shi'a say that all this was a ploy on Umar's part to delay the funeral and give Abu Bakr (who was outside the city) time to return to Medina.
[edit] The events at Saqifah
When Muhammad died, his closest relatives, Ali and Fatima, took charge of the body. While they were engaged in washing the body and preparing it for burial, say the Shi'a, Abu Bakr and Umar invaded a meeting at Saqifah, proposed Abu Bakr as the new leader, and forced those assembled to submit, manhandling one of the Medinan elders who opposed them in the process. Ali was not told of the meeting, and his name was not mentioned as one of those eligible for the leadership, despite Muhammad's clear words at Ghadir Khumm.
[edit] Persecution of the Shi'at Ali
Many of the Muslims of Medina refused to give their allegiance, their bay'ah, to Abu Bakr — as did Ali. They were known as the Shi'at Ali, the party of Ali, or, by their enemies. The Shi'a say that it took six months of threat and pressure to force the refusers to submit to Abu Bakr. Umar roamed the streets of Medina with his warriors, they say, threatening the holdouts. He even threatened to burn down Fatima's house unless Ali came out and submitted to Abu Bakr. Ali refused; Umar pushed his way into the house; Fatima, who was heavily pregnant, was crushed behind the door. She miscarried her unborn son, whom the Shi'a mourn as Al Muhsin. She had been mortally injured by Umar and soon died. Ali buried her at night, secretly, as he did not wish Abu Bakr or Umar, whom he blamed for her death, to attend her funeral. The Shi'a thus blame Abu Bakr and Umar for the death of Muhammad's daughter and grandson. [citation needed]
[edit] Ali submits for the sake of his followers
Some Shi'a believe that Ali took pity upon the sufferings of his devoted followers and gave his submission, his bay'ah, to Abu Bakr. Other Shi'a say that Ali did not give his allegiance, but only refrained from pressing his claims. Whatever happened, superficial unity was restored.
[edit] Ali's relationship with Abu Bakr and Umar
Shi'a believe that Ali kept aloof from Abu Bakr and Umar so long as they lived. They had prevented him from assuming leadership of the Muslim community (which he believed his duty as much as his right), they had persecuted his followers, and above all, their persecution had led to the death of his wife Fatima. Shias say that Ali didn't loyally support Abu Bakr and Umar, that he didn't serve them as an advisor, and that he would never have named his sons after them or give one of his daughters in marriage to Umar as sunnis claim. Shias state that Ali's daughter did not marry Umar; his sons were given common Arab names. The Sunni make these claims, they say, to hide the facts.
[edit] The role of hadith
The hadith are recorded oral traditions, preserved from the years when the Muslims did not write history, but recounted it (as was the custom in Arabia at that time). The Shi'a point to a number of hadith that, they believe, show that Muhammad had left specific instructions as to his successor. These hadiths have been given names: Ghadir Khumm, Safinah, Thaqalayn, Haqq, Manzilah, Hadith-i da'wat-i 'ashirah, and others.
Many of these oral traditions are also accepted by Sunni Muslims. However, the Sunni do not accept the Shi'a interpretation of these hadith.
[edit] Western academic views
Western academics have, until recently, taken their cues from the Sunni versions of Islamic history. Until the 1950s and 1960s, many scholars tended to translate and expound on Sunni texts as if these were the only Islamic texts worth studying, and generally tended to treat them as reliable. Then followed the age of doubt, when historians like Wansbrough and his student Crone took an independent, agnostic line, throwing doubt on the Sunni consensus and proposing daring theories about the Qur'an. Of late, the pendulum has swung somewhat the other way. Many contemporary scholars who have sifted through the early Muslim historical writings are proposing narratives that are closer to the received versions.
In most cases, this has meant a swing back towards the Sunni version of events. However, one recent publication, The Succession to Muhammad by Wilferd Madelung, Laudian Professor of Arabic at Oxford, examines the course of events from 632, and the death of Muhammad, through the rise of the Umayyads — and rehabilitates some of the Shi'a narratives.
[edit] References
[edit] Academic books
- Guillaume, A., The Life of Muhammad, Oxford University Press, 1955
- Madelung, W., The Succession to Muhammad, Cambridge University Press, 1997
- Nasr, S. H., Muhammad: Man of God, 1995.
- Nasr, S. H., Expectation of the Millennium: Shi'Ism in History, State University of New York Press, 1989.
[edit] Shi'a books
- Shi'a Islam (book), by Allameh Tabatabaei and Seyyed Hossein Nasr, State University of New York Press, 1979
- Al-Murāja'āt: A Shī'i-Sunni Dialogue by Sayyid 'Abdul-Husayn Sharafud-Dīn al-Mūsawi, 2001, Ansariyan Publications: Qum, Iran.
- Peshawar Nights by Sultanu'l-Wa'izin Shirazi, 2001, Ansariyan Publications: Qum, Iran.
- Ask those who know by Muhammad al-Tijani al-Samawi, 2001, Ansariyan Publications: Qum, Iran.
- To be with the Truthful by Muhammad al-Tijani al-Samawi, 2000, Ansariyan Publications: Qum, Iran.
- The Shi'a: The Real Followers of the Sunnah by Muhammad al-Tijani al-Samawi, 2000, Ansariyan Publications: Qum, Iran.
- Imamate and Leadership by Mujtaba Musavi Lari
[edit] Sunni books
- The Sealed Nectar by Saifur Rahman al-Mubarakpuri, 2002, Darussalam Publications.
- Sahih Al-Bukhari Translated by Dr. Muhammad Muhsin Khan, 1997, Darussalam Publications
