Stream processing

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Stream processing is a relatively new, yet quite successful paradigm to allow parallel processing at never-before-seen efficiency with minimal effort. Compared to existing architectures, stream processors are able to provide up to 20X the performance at the same power dissipation and die size.^{[citation needed]}.

Given a set of input and output data (streams), the paradigm is essentially based on defining a series of compute-intensive operations (kernel functions) to be applied for each element in the stream. While it seems it would be possible to have multiple kernels in a theoretical world, the uniform streaming paradigm is the only one which has had success. The uniform streaming paradigm uses one kernel function at a time, applied to all the elements of the stream. Kernel functions usually work on streams in a pipelined fashion, where local on-chip memory is reused for input/output streams to minimize external memory bandwidth. Uniform streaming, essentially SIMD, is able to simplify interconnects and get large increases in performance and a simplified programming model allowing development in high-level C and still get optimal performance from the hardware. Another important benefit of Stream processing is since the abstraction of streams and kernels expose data dependencies, it is possible for the compiler tools to fully automate and optimize on-chip management, such as sizing the streams and allocate them, while hardware can use scoreboarding to launch DMAs at runtime (as depedencies are known). In other words, there is no need for hardware caches or manual mangement of DMA, tasks that can consume the majority of a project's time when using conventional DSPs, for instance. The higher efficiency of the on-chip memory ("software managed cache") reduces die area or frees up area for more ALUs.

Stream processing is essentially a compromise, driven by a data-centric model that works very well for traditional DSP type applications, such as image, video and digital signal processing, but less so for general purpose processing with more randomized data access, such as databases. By sacrificing some flexibility in the model, the implications allow easier and faster execution. Depending on the context, processor design may be tuned for maximum efficiency or a trade-off for flexibility.

Contents 1 Comparison with previous parallel paradigms 1.1 Conventional, sequential paradigm 1.2 Systolic array paradigm 1.3 Parallel SIMD paradigm, packed registers (SWAR) 1.4 Parallel Stream paradigm (SIMD/MIMD) 2 Stream processing considerations 2.1 Data dependencies and parallelism 2.2 Programming model notes 2.3 Generic processor architecture 2.4 Hardware-in-the-loop issues 3 Interesting Stream Processors 4 References 5 External links

[edit] Comparison with previous parallel paradigms

Basic computers started from a sequential execution paradigm. Traditional CPUs are SISD based, which means they conceptually perform only a single operation at a time. As the computing needs of the world evolved, the amount of data to be managed increased very quickly. It was obvious that the sequential programming model could not cope with the increased need for processing power. Various efforts have been spent on finding alternative ways to perform massive amounts of computations but the only solution was to exploit some level of parallel execution. The result of those efforts was SIMD, a programming paradigm which allowed one to apply a single instruction on different data. Most of the time, SIMD was being used in a SWAR environment. By using more complicated structures, one could also have MIMD parallelism.

Template:Update: This article needs an update. Another parallel stream processing paradigm for data-parallel processing is the (usually hardwired) Systolic array, also including a widely accepted definition of the term Data stream, and, the Super systolic array (reconfigurable: e. g. rDPA: Reconfigurable datapath array ). Template:Update: The following text does not take into account these paradigms derived from the Systolic array. Re-editing of this article by an expert is needed: Template:Expert

Although those two paradigms were pretty efficient, real world implementations were plagued with various limitations ranging from memory alignment problems to synchronization issues and parallelism limitations. Only few SIMD processors survived as stand-alone components while most of them were embedded in standard CPUs.

Consider a simple program adding up two arrays containing 100 4-component vectors (i.e. 400 numbers in total).

[edit] Conventional, sequential paradigm

for(int i = 0; i < 100 * 4; i++)
    result[i] = source0[i] + source1[i];

This is the naïve method, that most computer science students would think of. Variations do exist (such as inner loops, structures and such) but they ultimately boil down to that.

[edit] Systolic array paradigm

Also see Systolic array.

[edit] Parallel SIMD paradigm, packed registers (SWAR)

for(int el = 0; el < 100; el++) // for each vector
    vector_sum(result[el], source0[el], source1[el]);

This is actually oversimplified. It assumes the instruction vector_sum magically works. Although this is what happens with instruction intrinsics, much information is actually not taken into account here such as the number of vector components and their data format. This is done for clarity.

You can see however, this method reduces the number of decoded instructions from numElements * componentsPerElement to numElements. The number of jump instructions is also decreased. Another gain lies in the parallel execution of the four mathematical operations, giving a great speed up.

What happened however is that the packed SIMD register holds a certain amount of data so it's not possible to get more parallelism. The speed up is somewhat limited by the assumption we made of performing four parallel operations (please note this is common for both AltiVec and SSE).

[edit] Parallel Stream paradigm (SIMD/MIMD)

// This is a fictional language for demonstration purposes.
streamElements 100
streamElementFormat 4 numbers
elementKernel "@arg0+@arg1"
result = kernel(source0, source1)

As you can see, the idea is to define the whole set of data instead of each single block. Describing the set of data is assumed to be in the first two rows. After that, the result is inferred from the sources and kernel. For simplicity, there's a 1:1 mapping between input and output data but this does not need to be. Applied kernels can also be much more complex.

An implementation of this paradigm can "unroll" a loop internally. This allows throughput to scale with chip complexity, easily utilizing hundreds of ALUs ^[1]. The elimination of complex data patterns makes much of this extra power available.

While stream processing is a branch of SIMD/MIMD processing, they must not be confused, although SIMD implementations can often work in a "streaming" manner, their performance is not comparable: the model envisions a much different usage pattern which allows far greater performance by itself. It has been noted ^[2] that when applied on generic processors such as standard CPU, only a 1.5x speedup can be reached. By contrast, ad-hoc stream processors easily reach over 10x performance, mainly attributed to the more efficient memory access and higher levels of parallel processing.

Although there are various degrees of flexibility allowed by the model, Stream processors usually impose some limitations on the kernel or stream size. For example, consumer hardware often lacks the ability to perform high-precision math, lacks complex indirection chains or presents limits on the number of instructions which can be executed.

[edit] Stream processing considerations

Available documentation on Stream processing is very scarce as this is written (September 12, 2005), only few, specialized institutions seems to have understood the implied power of the model. The Stanford University has been historically involved in a variety of projects on this, beginning from the Stanford Shading language and deploying a flexible, stand-alone stream processor called Imagine. Both those projects revealed the paradigm has a great potential so a much larger scale project has been started. With the name of Merrimac, a Stream-based supercomputer is now being researched. AT&T also recognized the wide adoption of stream-enhanced processors as GPUs rapidly evolved in both speed and functionality^[3].

[edit] Data dependencies and parallelism

A great advantage of the stream programming model lies in the kernel defining independent and local data usage.

Kernel operations define the basic data unit, both as input and output. This allows the hardware to better allocate resources and schedule global I/O. Although usually not exposed in the programming model, the I/O operations seems to be much more advanced on stream processors (at least, on GPUs). I/O operations are also usually pipelined by themselves while chip structure can help hide latencies. Definition of the data unit is usually explicit in the kernel, which is expected to have well-defined inputs (possibly using structures, which is encouraged) and outputs. In some environments, output values are fixed (in GPUs for example, there is a fixed set of output attributes, unless this is relaxed). Having each computing block clearly independent and defined allows to schedule bulk read or write operations, greatly increasing cache and memory bus efficiency.

Data locality is also explicit in the kernel. This concept is usually referred as kernel locality, identifying all the values which are short-lived to a single kernel invocation. All the temporaries are simply assumed to be local to each kernel invocation so, hardware or software can easily allocate them on fast registers. This is strictly related to degree of parallelism that can be exploited.

Inside each kernel, producer-consumer relationships can be individuated by usual means while, when kernels are chained one after the another, this relationship is given by the model. This allows easier scheduling decisions because it's clear that if kernel B requires output from kernel A, it's obvious that A must be completed before B can be run (at least on the data unit being used). The Imagine chip's on-board stream controller module manages kernel loads and execution in hardware at runtime keeping a scoreboard of kernel dependencies (as told by the compiler) and can allow out-of-order execution to minimize stalls producer-consumer locality. This is another major new paradigm for high performance processing. There are also hints the Cell processor allows this by routing data between various SPEs for example. In comparison, since the Imagine is a pure SIMD machine, inter-cluster communication and kernel execution is always explicit with much lower silicon overhead than a MIMD machine, such as Cell. Important here is to realize that although Cell uses SIMD operations within each SPE, the SPEs are not SIMD, as the case with Imagine. Now, Cell is designed for gaming and probably good at that, but assuming Cell was instead a SIMD machine tailored for video processing and using the Imagine memory controller model, significant (>~10X) improvements in power efficiency and cost (smaller die size) could be realized. Imagine uses 8 clusters (a.k.a lanes) of ALUs (similar to Cell's SPEs), but the clusters run in data-parallel mode executing a single kernel at a time. Task switching is done using conventional time-multiplexing. There is only one instruction decode for instance. The tradeoff here is that for kernels that can exploit lower levels of data-parallelism, the efficiency drops as not all clusters will do useful work. For a vast majority of DSP processing though this tradeoff pays off very well.

Recently, CPU vendors have been pushing for multi-core and multi-threading. While this trend is going to be useful for the average user, there's no chance standard CPUs can reach a stream processor's performance.

The parallelism between two kernel instances is similar to a thread level parallelism. Each kernel instance gets data parallelism. Inside each kernel, it is still possible to use instruction level parallelism. Task parallelism (such as overlapped I/O) can still happen. It's easy to have thousands of kernel instances but it's simply impossible to have the same amounts of threads. This is the power of the stream.

[edit] Programming model notes

The biggest immediate challenge of parallel processing does not lie so much in type of hardware architecture, but in how easy it will be to program and get real-world performance. Machines like Imagine uses a straight-forward single-theaded model with depedencies and memory allocation and DMA automated. This in itself is a result from the research at MIT and Stanford in finding an optimal layering of tasks between programmer, tools and hardware. Programmers beat tools in mapping algorithms to parallel hardware, and tools beat programmers in figuring out smartest memory allocation schemes, etc. Compare with MIMD designs like Cell, where the programmer needs to deal with application partitioning across multiple cores and deal with process synchronization and load balancing. Efficient multi-core programming tools are severely lacking today.

One of the drawbacks of SIMD programming was the issue of Array-of-Structures (AoS) and Structure-of-Arrays (SoA). Programmers often wanted to build data structures with a 'real' meaning, for example:

// A particle in a three dimensional space.
struct particle_t
    float x, y, z;          // not even an array!
    unsigned byte color[3]; // 8 bit per channel, say we care about RGB only
    float size;
    // ... and many other attributes may follow...

What happened is that those structures were then assembled in arrays to keep things nicely organized. This is AoS. When the structure is laid out in memory, the compiler will produce interleaved data, in the sense that all the structures will be contiguous but there will be a constant offset between, say, the "size" attribute of a structure instance and the same element of the following instance. The offset depends on the structure definition (and possibly other things not considered here such as compiler's policies). There are also other problems. For example, the three position variables cannot be SIMD-ized that way, because it's not sure they will be allocated in continuous memory space. To make sure SIMD operations can work on them, they shall be grouped in a 'packed memory location' or at least in an array. Another problem lies in both "color" and "xyz" to be defined in three-component vector quantities. SIMD processors usually have support for 4-component operations only (with some exceptions however).

These kinds of problems and limitations made SIMD acceleration on standard CPUs quite nasty. The proposed solution, SoA follows as:

struct particle_t
    float *x, *y, *z;
    unsigned byte *colorRed, *colorBlue, *colorGreen;
    float *size;

For readers not experienced with C, the '*' before each identifier means a pointer to an 'array'. For Java programmers, this is roughly equivalent to "[]". The drawback here is that the various attributes could be spread in memory. To make sure this does not cause cache misses, we'll have to update all the various "reds", then all the "greens" and "blues". Although this is not so bad after all, it's simply overkill when compared to what most stream processors offer.

For stream processors, the usage of structures is encouraged. From an application point of view, all the attributes can be defined with some flexibility. Taking GPUs as reference, there is a set of attributes (at least 16) available. For each attribute, the application can state the number of components and the format of the components (but only primitive data types are supported for now). The various attributes are then attached to a memory block, possibly defining a stride between 'consecutive' elements of the same attributes, effectively allowing interleaved data. When the GPU begins the stream processing, it will gather all the various attributes in a single set of parameters (usually this looks like a structure or a "magic global variable"), performs the operations and scatters the results to some memory area for later processing (or retrieving).

Summing up, there's more flexibility on the application's side yet everything looks very organized on the stream processor's side.

[edit] Generic processor architecture

Historically, CPUs began implementing various tiers of memory access optimizations because of the ever increasing performance when compared to relatively slow growing external memory bandwidth. As this gap widened, big amounts of die area were dedicated to hiding memory latencies. Since fetching information and opcodes to those few ALUs is expensive, very little die area is dedicated to actual mathematical machinery (as a rough estimation, consider it to be less than 10%).

A similar architecture exists on stream processors but thanks to the new programming model, the amount of transistors dedicated to management is actually very little.

Beginning from a whole system point of view, stream processors usually exist in a controlled environment. GPUs do exist on an add-in board (this seems to also apply to Imagine). CPUs do the dirty job of managing system resources, running applications and such.

The stream processor is usually equipped with a fast, efficient, proprietary memory bus (crossbar switches are now common, multi-buses have been employed in the past). The exact amount of memory lanes is dependent on the market range. As this is written, there are still 64-bit wide interconnections around (entry-level). Most mid-range models use a fast 128-bit crossbar switch matrix (4 or 2 segments), while high-end models deploy huge amounts of memory (actually up to 512MB) with a slightly slower crossbar that is 256 bits wide. By contrast, standard processors from Intel Pentium to some Athlon 64 have only a single 64-bit wide data bus.

Memory access patterns are much more predictable. While arrays do exist, their dimension is fixed at kernel invocation. The thing which most closely matches a multiple pointer indirection is an indirection chain, which is however guaranteed to finally read or write from a specific memory area (inside a stream).

Because of the SIMD nature of the stream processor's execution units (ALUs clusters), read/write operations are expected to happen in bulk, so memories are optimized for high bandwidth rather than low latency (this is a difference from Rambus and DDR SDRAM, for example). This also allows for efficient memory bus negotiations.

Most (90%) of a stream processor's work is done on-chip, requiring only 1% of the global data to be stored to memory. This is where knowing the kernel temporaries and dependencies pays.

Internally, a stream processor features some clever communication and management circuits but what's interesting is the Stream Register File (SRF). This is conceptually a large cache in which stream data is stored to be transferred to external memory in bulks. As a cache-like software-controlled structure to the various ALUs, the SRF is shared between all the various ALU clusters. The key concept and innovation here done with Stanford's Imagine chip is that the compiler is able to automate and allocate memory in an optimal way, fully transparent to the programmer. The dependencies between kernel functions and data is known through the programming model which enables the compiler to perform flow analysis and optimally pack the SRFs. Commonly, this cache and DMA management can take up the majority of a project's schedule, something the stream processor (or at least Imagine) totally automates. Tests done at Stanford showed that the compiler did an as well or better job at scheduling memory than if you handtuned the thing with much effort.

There is proof, there can be only a lot of clusters because inter-cluster communication is assumed to be rare. Internally however, each cluster can efficiently exploit a much lower amount of ALUs because inter-cluster communication is common and thus needs to be highly efficient.

To keep those ALUs fetched with data, each ALU is equipped with Local Register Files (LRFs), which are basically its usable registers.

This three-tiered data access pattern, makes it easy to keep temporary data away from slow memories, thus making the silicon implementation highly efficient and power-saving.

[edit] Hardware-in-the-loop issues

Although an order of magnitude speedup can easily be expected (even from mainstream GPUs when computing in a streaming manner), not all applications benefit from this. Communication latencies are actually the biggest problem. Although PCI Express improved this with full-duplex communications, getting a GPU (and possibly a generic stream processor) to work will possibly take long amounts of time. This means it's usually counter-productive to use them for small datasets. The stream architecture also incurs penalities for small streams, a behaviour which is officially identified as short stream effect. This basically happens because changing the kernel is a rather expensive operation.

Pipelining is a very radicated practice on stream processors, with GPUs featuring pipelines exceeding 200 stages. The cost for switching settings is dependent on the setting being modified but it's now considered to be always expensive. Although efforts are being spent for lowering the cost of switching, it's predictable this isn't going to happen any time soon. To avoid those problems at various levels of the pipeline, many techniques have been deployed such as "über shaders" and "texture atlases". Those techniques are actually game-oriented for the nature of GPUs, but the concepts are interesting for generic stream processing as well.

[edit] Interesting Stream Processors

• Imagine, from the Stanford University is a very flexible architecture which has proven to be both fast and energy efficient. Built using 0.15 micrometre technology, it features 8 clusters of 6 ALUs each. In total, the chip features 48 pipelined VLIW ALUs with 16.9GB/s of off-chip memory bandwidth. When clocked at 96 MHz, up to 3.5 GFLOPs can be reached (MPEG2 encode example) while dissipating only 1.6 W of core power using 1.5 V. Imagine is, proportionally, an order of magnitude faster than Pentium 4 and still more power efficient than DSPs^[4].

Prof. Dally and several members of his team from Stanford have spun off the Imagine project and formed Stream Processors, Inc. in order to commercialize stream processing for DSP-class markets. The company is preparing to publicly launch their first products including a family of chips plus tools, training and development boards. http://www.streamprocessors.com

• GPUs are recognized as widespread, consumer-grade stream processors. Although they are usually limited in hardware functionalities, a great deal of effort is spent on optimizing algorithms for this family of processors, which usually have very high horsepower. Various generations are to be noted by a stream processing point of view.
  1. Pre-NV2x: no explicit support for stream processing. Kernel operations are usually hidden in the API and provide too little flexibility for general use.
  2. NV2x: kernel stream operations are now explicitly under the programmer's control but only for vertex processing (fragments are still using old paradigms). No branching support severely hampers flexibility but some algorithms can be run (notably, low-precision fluid simulation).
  3. R3xx: increased performance and precision with limited support for branching/looping in both vertex and fragment processing. The implemented model is now flexible enough to cover many purposes.
  4. NV4x: this generation is actually state of the art. Very flexible branching support although some limitations still exists on the number of operations to be executed and strict recursion depth, as well as array manipulation. Performance is estimated to be from 20 to 44GFLOPs, although further product iterations increased this consistently.
• Not a true stream processor, the Cell processor is actually a generic CPU (the PPE) with tighly coupled SPEs, acting more like a MIMD architecture. The streaming-like architecture is actually tuned up for flexibility rather than high performance but the model still allows, by a high-level point of view to scale with the number of SPEs. Please note that scaling to a different amount of SPEs may require to recompile the application (while GPUs automatically do this). Various components can be seen as fitting in a streaming paradigm although the programming model and memory management differ and is more conventional without the stream advantages of higher productivity.

[edit] References

1. ↑ Khailany, Dally, Rixner, Kapasi, Owens and Towles: "Exploring VLSI Scalability of Stream Processors", Stanford and Rice University.
2. ↑ Gummaraju and Rosenblum, "Stream processing in General-Purpose Processors", Stanford University.
3. ↑ Venkatasubramanian, "The Graphics Card as a Stream Computer", AT&T Labs - research.
4. ↑ Kapasi, Dally, Rixner, Khailany, Owens, Ahn and Mattson, "Programmable Stream Processors", Universities of Stanford, Rice, California (Davis) and Reservoir Labs.

[edit] External links

• Stream Processors and their Applications for the Wireless Domain Web version of a chapter from the Computer Engineering Handbook, CRC Press
• An article for beginners, describing some of the challenges involved in stream programming with GPGPUs