Science and technology in Iran

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Science continues to be produced in modern Iran despite many limitations.
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Science continues to be produced in modern Iran despite many limitations.

Science and technology in Iran, like the country itself, has a long history. Persia was a Cradle of Science in earlier times. Iranians contributed significantly to the current understanding of nature, medicine, mathematics, and philosophy. To name a few, Persians founded algebra, invented wind-power machine and discovered alcohol.

Contents

[edit] Science in Persia

[edit] Before Islam

There is not much information about the evolution of science in Iran in ancient times. It is however, established that science and knowledge was a progress during the Sassanid period (226 to 652 AD) when great attention was given to mathematics and astronomy. The Academy of Gondeshapur can be mentioned as a prominent example in this regard.

The existence of astronomical tables such as the Shahryar Tables and the observatories which were later imitated by the astrologers and astronomers of the Islamic period prove the importance of astronomy in Persia during the Sassanid dynasty.

Laleh Park's southwestern entrance with a statue of Biruni, a medieval Persian astronomer.
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Laleh Park's southwestern entrance with a statue of Biruni, a medieval Persian astronomer.

Sa'ad Andolsosi in his book "Classes of People" highly praised the knowledge of Persians of that period in mathematics and astronomy.

In some books wrote in the Pahlavi languages one encounter many references to scientific subjects such as the divinity, natural science, mathematics and other relevant subjects.

The medical and veterinary essays, prescriptions and expressions mentioned in "Dinkart" (from the Sassanid period) are very interesting. Some medical books later narrated in Arabic were initially compiled in the Syrian or Pahlavi languages by Iranian scholars. Among such books are books on veterinary, agriculture, diseases and treatment of gab-birds, training and education of children, tactics of warfare, etc.

In the mid-Sassanid era, a strong wave of knowledge came to Persia from the west in the form of views and traditions of Greece which, following the spread of Christianity, accompanied Syriac, the official language of Christians as well as the Iranian Nestorian script. The Christian schools in Iran have produced great scientists such as Nersi, Farhad and Marabai. Also a book is left by Paulus Persa, heads of the Iranian Department of Logic and Philosophy of Aristotle, written in Syriac and dictated to Sassanid King Anushiravan.

Other great teachers have risen from similar theological and scientific schools. Amongst them was Ibrahim Madi, Hibai the translator, Marbab Gondishapuri and Paulus son of Kaki of Karkhe (Mentioning Gondishapur, it is necessary to add that this town was located east of Susa, southeast of Dezful and northwest of Shushtar). During the Sassanid period Gondishapur became a center of medical science and its fame lasted for several centuries even after the advent of Islam in Persia.

A fortunate incident for pre-Islamic Iranian science during the Sassanid period was the arrival of eight great scholars from Greece who sought refuge in Persia from persecution by the Roman Emperor Justinian. These men were the followers of neoplatonic school. King Anushiravan had many discussions with these men and especially with the one named Priscianus.

A summary of these discussions was compiled in a book entitled "Solution to the Problems of Khosrow, the King of Persia," which is now in the Saint Germany Library of Paris. These discussions touched on several subjects, such as philosophy, physiology, metabolisms, natural science as astronomy. After the establishment of Omayyad and Abbasid states, many Iranian scholars were sent to the capitals of these Islamic dynasties.

Persian scientists and inventors discovered electromagnetic properties of materials. The invention of first batteries date back to the Parthian era or Sassanid era. Some have suggested the batteries may have been used medicinally. Other scientists believe the batteries were used for electroplating - transferring a thin layer of metal on to another metal surface — a technique still used today and a common classroom experiment.[2]

In -1700 BC, Windmills developed by Babylonians. They are used to pump water for irrigation. Later on, Persian inventors develop a wind-power machine, a more advanced windmill than that developed by the Babylonians.[3][4]

The philosophy of the Islamic period was influenced by Greece, India and by the Iran of the pre-Islamic period. Ibn Khurram writes in his book "al Melal wa al-Nehal" that Muhammad Bin Zakaria Razi took from ancient Iranian's five principals in which he believed:

  1. Creator- Ahuramazda
  2. Satan-Ahriman
  3. Moment-Time
  4. Place-Locality
  5. Essence-Spirit

The same is mentioned by Massoudi in his book "Moruj-oz-Zahab." Shahaboddin Sohrevardi in the preface to his philosophical book quotes old Iranian terms and expressions derived from Zoroastrians, Manians and Zarvanians.

[edit] After Islam

Manuscript of Abdolrahman Sufi's Depiction of Celestial Constellations.
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Manuscript of Abdolrahman Sufi's Depiction of Celestial Constellations.

The Abbasids paid special attention to science and interest in the courts of caliphs of Baghdad and the Emirs of Persia such as Khwarazmshahis, Samanids, Ziariads, and the Bowayyids and Dialameh of Isfahan, and reached its peak at the end of the 11th and beginning of 12th centuries, but declined under the Turkmen and Mongol invasions.

Some of the great Iranian translators who knew Syriac, Greek and Pahlavi languages and translated many scientific books into Arabic were Al Bakhtyasu, Al-Nowbakht, Al-Masouyeh, Abdollah Ibn Moqaffa, Omar Ibn Farakhan Tabari, Ali Ibn Ziad Tammimi, Ibn Sahl, Yusof Al Naqel, Isa Ibn Chaharbakht, Yatr Ibn Rostam Al Kouhi and the latest was Abu Reyhan Birooni, the mathematician and famous translator of Indian books.

As the result of these men and their Arab colleagues, the knowledge and science of ancient India, Greece and Alexandria were translated into Arabic, creating the greatest scientific treasury of the Middle Ages. The most ancient mathematicians and writers amongst the Muslims were two Iranians: Nowbakht Ahwazi and Ibrahim Ibn Habib-ol-fazari, and the latter also translated into Arabic and collection of Indian astronomy books.

One of the greatest mathematicians of antiquity who appeared at the end of the ninth century was an Iranian by the name of Muhammad Ibn Musa-al-Kharazmi whose work affected the Islamic and European culture after 12th century. This great mathematician in addition to having compiled a table of figures which was named Algorithm or Algrism (now known as Logarithm), also developed algebra and by his work he revived the ancient Iranian and Indian arithmetic system which were used before him. His work in Algebra was translated into Latin by the great Latin translator Gerard of Cremona titled: De jebra et almucabola. Robert of Chester also translated it under the title Liber algebras et almucabala. No doubt the works of Khwarizmi "exercized a profound influence on the development of mathematical thought in the medieval West. [1]

Mathematics were later developed by great scientists such as Abu Abbas Fazl Hatam, the Banu Musa brothers, Farahani, Omar Ibn Farakhan, Abu Zeid Ahmad Ibn Soheil Balkhi (9th century AD.), Abul Vafa Bouzjani, Abu Jaafar Khan, Bijan Ibn Rostam Kouhi, Ahmad Ibn Abdul Jalil Qomi, Bu Nasr Iraqi, Abu Reyhan Birooni, the great Iranian poet Hakim Omar Khayyam Neishaburi, Qatan Marvazi, Massoudi Ghaznavi (13th century AD), Khajeh Nassireddin Tusi, and Ghiasseddin Jamshidi Kashani.

In medicine, Mansour Davaniqi, the founder of Baghdad, invited scholars from Gondishapur to live in that city. Amongst them was a Nestorian Christian named Jurjis Ibn Jebreel Ibn Bakhtyasu who wrote a detailed book on medicine which contained all subjects on medical science known at that time. Others who migrated to Baghdad also had publications of their own. The first Muslim who wrote on medicine was also another Persian, Ali Ibn Rabn Tabari, who compiled medical knowledge from Greece, India and ancient Persia.

After him came Abu Bakr Muhammad Bin Zakaria Razi of the 10th century, who wrote a number of detailed as well as short books on medicine. His books were translated into Latin and were printed several times. In addition to compiling subjects from ancient books Razi fully relied on his own experiences. His student was Abu Bakr Joveini who wrote a comprehensive medical book in Persian and this is the first book on medicine in the Persian language and one of the oldest literary works in this language. Razi is considered the founder of practical physics and the inventor of the special or net weight of matter.

The third important writer on medicine was Ali Ibn Abbas Majussi Ahwazi, the physician to the court of Azod-od-Dowleh Daylami, whose works were also translated into Latin and reprinted several times. His books were considered the best and most complete works on medicine prior to the appearance of Avicenna (Abu Ali Sina), who wrote many books and papers on various scientific subjects. His book Qanun on medicine was for many centuries used as a textbook by Europeans.

Many good physicians have appeared since Avicenna, but none gained the prominence of Zinn-ol-Abedin Esmail Jorjani. His book is even more complete than Avicenna's Canons and is considered as the greatest medical book written in Persian. Iranians were also proficient in other natural sciences such as botany, pharmacology, chemistry, zoology, lithology and mineralogy. The most famous scientists in these fields were Muhammad Bin Zakaria Razi and Abu Reyhan Birooni who made discoveries as well. Alcohol and sulfuric acid are thought to be discovered by Rhazes, and Biruni calculated specific gravity of many substances in a very precise manner.

In the year of 1000, Birooni wrote an astronomical encyclopaedia which discussed the possibility that the earth might rotate around the sun long before Tycho Brahe drew the first maps of the sky, using stylized animals to depict the constellations.

In 13th century, Nasir al-Din Tusi developed a basic theory of evolution- more than 600 years before Charles Darwin. There are some key differences between Tusi's approach and Darwin's "The Origin of Species". While Darwin used deductive reasoning, gathering samples of plants and animals to work his way from facts to a theory, Tusi used a more theoretical approach. Tusi explained that "hereditary variability" was the leading force of evolution. He wrote that all living organisms were able to change and that the animate organisms developed owing to their hereditary variability: "The organisms that can gain the new features faster are more variable. As a result, they gain advantages over other creatures." This sounds remarkably like a simplistic form of Darwin's writings about mutations. Tusi was right when he suggested: "The bodies are changing as a result of the internal and external interactions" - that is, as a result of environmental influences. Tusi wrote: "Look at the world of animals and birds. They have all that is necessary for defense, protection and daily life, including strengths, courage and appropriate tools [organs]". Tusi believed that humans were derived from advanced animals. He wrote about the different transition forms between the human and animal world, saying: "Such humans [probably anthropoid apes] live in the Western Sudan and other distant corners of the world. They are close to animals by their habits, deeds and behavior."[5]

Tusi said that humans are related to all living and inanimate creatures of Nature: "The human has features that distinguish him from other creatures, but he has other features that unite him with the animal world, vegetable kingdom or even with the inanimate bodies."[6]

Tusi believed that a body of matter is able to change, but is not able to entirely disappear. He wrote: "A body of matter cannot disappear completely. It only changes its form, condition, composition, color and other properties and turns into a different complex or elementary matter." Five hundred years later, M. Lomonosov (1711-1765) and Antoine-Laurent Lavoisier (1743-1794) created the law of conservation of mass, setting down this very same idea.[7] (However it should be noted that Tusi argued for evolution within a firmly Islamic context: he did not, like Darwin, draw materialist conclusions from his theories. Moreover, unlike Darwin he was arguing hypothetically: he did not attempt to provide empirical data for his theories. Nonetheless his arguments, which in some ways prefigure natural selection are still remarkably 'advance' for their time).

Jaber Ibn Hayyan, the famous Iranian chemist who died in 804 at Tous, in Khorasan was the father of a number of discoveries which were recorded in an encyclopaedia and numerous treaties covering two thousand works which became the bible of European chemists of the 18th century, particularly of Lavoisier.

The legacy of Alhazen who was highly instrumental in the founding of Modern Optics was continued by Ali Javan who invented the Gas laser.
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The legacy of Alhazen who was highly instrumental in the founding of Modern Optics was continued by Ali Javan who invented the Gas laser.

These works led naturally to the following uses: tinctures and their applications in tanning and textiles, distillations of plans and flowers, the origin of perfumes, therapeutic pharmacy and of course gunpowder, a powerful instrument of military superiority which Islam possessed long before the West.

Abu Ali al'Hasan ibn al'Haitam is known in the West as Alhazen, born 965 in Persia and dying in 1039 in Egypt. He is called the Father of Optics for his writings on and experiments with lenses, mirrors, refraction and reflection. He correctly stated that vision results from light that is reflected into the eye by an object, not emitted by the eye itself and then reflected back, as Aristotle believed. He solved the problem of finding the locus of points on a spherical mirror from which light will be reflected to an observer. From his studies of refraction he determined that the atmosphere has a definite height, and that twilight is caused by refraction of solar radiation from beneath the horizon. The optical diagram on this Pakistani commemorative in blue, green and black is hard to decipher because of the lack of contrast.[8]

[edit] Philosophy in Persia

For philosophy in modern Iran see: Intellectual Movements in Iran

In ancient times, Persia was known to the Occident also as the land where the sun of philosophy shone strongly, to the extent that Plotinus entered the Roman army with the hope of going to Persia to encounter its philosophers. Moreover, when what remained of the Platonic Academy was closed by the Byzantines, the philosophers residing in it took refuge in Persia. As far as Zoroaster, the prophet of ancient Persia, is concerned, he was known in the ancient world not only as a prophet but also as a philosopher. Furthermore, the three wise men present at the birth of Christ hailed from "the East," which at that time for Palestine would mean most likely no other place than Persia. As for Islamic philosophy, whose earlier schools influenced the West so greatly, most of its figures were either Persian or belonged to the Persianate zone of Islamic civilization.[9]

[edit] Science in Modern Iran

see Higher education in Iran and Contemporary Medicine in Iran

Iran's Scientists cautiously reach out to the world. Scientists in Iran are trying to revive the golden time of persian science. Many individual Iranian scientists along with Iranian Academy of Medical Sciences and The Academy of Sciences of Iran are involved in this revival. Iran has increased its publication output nearly ten fold from 1996 till 2004 and has been ranked first in terms of output growth rate followed by China.[2]

Iran is a good example of a country that has made considerable advances through focusing on education and training. Despite sanctions in almost all aspects of research during the past few decades, Persian scientists have been producing cutting-edge science. Their publication rate in international journals has quadrupled during the past decade. Although it is still low compared with the developed countries, this puts Iran in the first rank of Islamic countries.[3] Considering the country's brain drain and its poor political relationship with the USA and some Western countries, Iran's scientific community remains productive, even while economic sanctions make it hard for universities to purchase equipment or send people to the United States to attend scientific meetings.[4]

Iran's university population has swelled from 100,000 in 1979 to 2 million in 2006. Indeed, in Iran some 70% of science and engineering students are women.[5]

Theoretical and computational sciences are quite developed in Iran. Theoretical physicists and chemists are regularly publishing in high impact factor journals. Despite the limitations in funds, facilities and international collaborations, Iranian scientists have been very productive in several experimental fields as pharmacology, pharmaceutical chemistry, organic and polymer chemistry. Iranian scientists are also helping construct the Compact Muon Solenoid, a detector for CERN's Large Hadron Collider due to come online in 2007. Iranian Biophysicists (especially molecular biophysics) have found international reputations since 1990s. High filed NMR facility, Microcalorimetry, Circular dichroism, Instruments for single protein channel studies have been provided in Iran during last decades. Tissue engineering and research on biomaterials have just started to emerge in Biophysics departments. Recently in last months of 2006 Iranian biotechnologists announced that they as a third manufacture in the world, have sent CinneVex (recombinant type of Interferon b1a) to the market. Also, Royana which is the first live cloned sheep in Iran, has passed it's critical first 2 month of his life.

Iranian neuroscientists gained international reputation. This nature paper is an example of the research works carried out by Iranian young investigators who did all their trainings and research works in Iran. Iranian neuroscientists gained international reputation. This nature paper is an example of the research works carried out by Iranian youn investigators who did all their trainings and research works in Iran

Naser Maleknia, Professor of Medicine and an inspiring and dedicated teacher of Tehran Medical School
Naser Maleknia, Professor of Medicine and an inspiring and dedicated teacher of Tehran Medical School

Clinical sciences are quite developed in Iran. In some areas as Rheumatology and Hematology and Bone Marrow Trasplantation, Iranian medical scientists are among the world leaders in the fields. The Hematology Oncology & BMT Research Center (HORC) of Tehran Medical University of medical sciences , which is located in Shariati Hospital, has been established since 1991. This center is one of the largest BMT centers in the world and is one of the remarkable international BMT centers due to its performing a great number of successful transplantations.[10] According to a study conducted in 2005, there exist associated specialized pediatric hematology and oncology (PHO) services in almost all major cities throughout the country, where 43 board certified or eligible pediatric hematologist–oncologists are giving care to children suffering from cancer or hematological disorders. There is an approved fellowship program for PHO at three university children’s medical centers.[6] Besides hematology, Gastroenterology has recently attracted many talented medical students too. Gasteroetrology research center of Tehran University has produced increasing number of scientific publications since its establishment.

Modern organ transplantation dates back to 1935, when the first cornea transplant was performed by Prof. Mohammad-Qoli Shams at Farabi Hospital in Tehran, Iran. The Shiraz Nemazi transplant centre was also one of the pioneering transplant unit of Iran, which performed the first kidney transplant in 1967 and the first liver transplant in 1995. The first heart transplant was performed 1993 in Tabriz, Iran. The first lung transplant was performed in 2001, and the first heart and lung transplants were performed in 2002, both at Tehran University.[11] Currently, Renal, liver and heart transplantations are routinely done in Iran. Iran ranks fifth in the world in kidney transplants.[12] Iranian Tissue Bank (I.T.B) is the first and unique multi-facility tissue bank in country. I.T.B started its activity in 1994. In June 2000, the Organ Transplantation Brain Death Act was approved by the Parliament, followed by the establishment of the Iranian Network for Transplantation Organ Procurement. This act helped to expand heart, lung, and liver transplantation programs. By 2003, Iran had performed 131 liver, 77 heart, 7 lung, 211 bone marrow, 20,581 cornea, and 16,859 liver tranplantations. Sources of these donations were living-unrelated donor, 82%; cadaver, 10%; and living-related donor, 8%. The 3-year renal transplant patient survival rate was 92.9%, and the 40-month graft survival rate was 85.9%.[13]

Neuroscience is also emerging in Iran. A few PhD programs in cognitive and computational neuroscience have been established in the country during last decades.

Center of Excellence in Design, Robotics, and Automation was established in 2001 to promote educational and research activities in the fields of Design, Robotics, and Automation. Besides these professional groups, There are also several robotics groups working in Iranian high schools. [14]

Iran's government has devoted huge amount of funds for research on high technologies as nanotechnology, biotechnology, stem cell research and information technology.

In 2005, Iran's first genetically modified (GM) rice has been approved by national authorities and is currently being grown commercially for human consumption. In addition to GM rice, Iran has produced several GM plants in the laboratory, such as insect-resistant maize, cotton, potato and sugar beet; herbicide-resistant canola; salinity- and drought- tolerant wheat; and blight-resistant maize and wheat.[15] Iran's first cloned animal (Sheep) was born in August 2 2006.[16][17]

The Iranian government has committed 150 billion rials (roughly $17.5 million) for a telescope, an observatory, and a training program, all part of a plan to build up the country's astronomy base. Iran wants to collaborate internationally and to become internationally competitive in astronomy, says the University of Michigan's Carl Akerlof, an adviser to the Iranian project. "For a government that is usually characterized as wary of foreigners, that's an important development." [18]

Ahmad Reza Dehpour, Iran's best researcher of the year 2006.
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Ahmad Reza Dehpour, Iran's best researcher of the year 2006.

Parallel to academic research, several companies have been founded in Iran during last few decades. For example CinnaGen Inc. established in 1992 is one of the pioneering biotech companies in the region. CinnaGen won BIOTECHNOLOGY Asia 2005 Innovation Awards due to its achievements and innovation in biotechnology research. Software companies are growing very fast. In CeBIT 2006, ten Iranian software companies introduced their products.[19][20]

Iran annually hosts international science festivals. The International Kharazmi Festival in Basic Science ([21]) and The annual festival of Razi Medical Science Research are to promote original research in science, technology and medicine in Iran.

Iranians always welcome scientists from all over the world in Iran for a visit, participation in seminars or collaborations. Many Nobel laureates and influential scientists as Bruce Alberts, F. Sherwood Rowland, Kurt Wuthrich and Pierre-Gilles de Genne visited Iran after the revolution. Some Universities also hosted American and European scientists as guest lecturers during last decades.

[edit] Contribution of Iranians to modern science

Iranian scientists are a significant portion of international scientific community. In 1960, Ali Javan invented first gas laser. In 1973 fuzzy set theory has been developed by Lotfi Zadeh. Iranian cardiologist, Tofy Mussivand invented the first Artificial heart and developed it further afterwards. HbA1c was discovered by Samuel Rahbar and introduced to medical community. Vafa-Witten theorem was proposed by Cumrun Vafa, Iranian string theorist and his co-worker Edward Witten. KPZ equation has been named after Mehran Kardar, notable Iranian physicist. Here are some representative discoveries and innovations by Iranian scientists throughout the world:

According to a study carried out by Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Iranian scientists and engineers in US own or control around 880 billion dollars.[22]

[edit] Medicine in Iran

See article: Contemporary Medicine in Iran

A 500 year old latin translation of the Canons of Medicine by Avicenna.
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A 500 year old latin translation of the Canons of Medicine by Avicenna.

The practice and study of medicine in Iran has a long and prolific history. Being at the crossroads of the East and the West frequently put Persia in the midst of developments in both ancient Greek and Indian medicine. And many contributions were added to this body of knowledge in both pre- and post-Islamic Iran as well.

The first teaching hospital, for example, where students were authorized to methodically practice on patients under the supervision of physicians as part of their education, was the Academy of Gundishapur in the Persian Empire. Some experts even go far as to claim that "to a very large extent, the credit for the whole hospital system must be given to Persia". [9]

The idea of xenotransplantation dates back to days of Achaemenidae (Achaemenian dynasty), as evidenced by engravings of many mythologic chimeras still present in Persepolis.[10]

Several documents still exist from which the definitions and treatments of headache in medieval Persia can be ascertained. These documents give detailed and precise clinical information on different types of headache. The medieval physicians listed various signs and symptoms, apparent causes, and hygienic and dietary rules for prevention of headaches. The medieval writings are both accurate and vivid, and they provide long lists of substances used in the treatment of headaches. Many of the approaches of physicians in medieval Persia are accepted today; however, still more of them could be of use to modern medicine.[11]

In the 10th century work of Shahnama, Ferdowsi describes a Caesarean section performed on Rudaba when giving birth, in which a special wine agent was prepared by a Zoroastrian priest, and used to produce unconsciousness for the operation. [12] Although largely mythical in content, the passage does at least illustrate working knowledge of Anesthesia in ancient Persia.

Following the Islamic Conquest of Iran, Medicine continued to flourish with the rise of notables such as Rhazes and Haly Abbas, albeit Baghdad being the new cosmopolitan inheritor of Sassanid Jundishapur's medical academy.

The first medical encyclopedia to be written in Persian language instead of the usual Arabic lingua franca, was Dhakhira-i Khwarazmshahi, composed between 1111CE and 1136CE by Sayyed Ismail Gorgani.

An idea of the number of medical works composed in Persian alone may be gathered from Adolf Fonahn's Zur Quellenkunde der Persischen Medizin, published in Leipzig in 1910. The author enumerates over 400 works in Persian language on medicine, excluding those such as Avicenna, who wrote in Arabic. Author-historians Meyerhof, Casey Wood, and Hirschberg also have recorded the names of at least 80 oculists who contributed treatises on ophthalmic subjects from the beginning of 800 CE to the full flowering of Muslim medical literature in 1300 CE.

Aside from the aforementioned, two other medical works also attracted great attention in medieval Europe, namely Abu Mansur Muwaffaq's Materia Medica written around 950CE, and the illustrated Anatomy of Mansur ibn Muhammad written in 1396CE.

Modern academic medicine begins in Iran with Joseph Cochran establishing a medical college in Urmia in 1878. Cochran is often credited for founding Iran’s "first contemporary medical college".[23] The website of Urmia University credits Cochran for "lowering the infant mortality rate in the region" [24] and for founding one of Iran's first modern hospitals ("Westminister Hospital") in Urmia.

[edit] References

  • Iran the cradle of science, by R. Behrouz, M. Ourmazdi & P. Reza'i. Circle of Ancient Iranian Studies. Unlimited distribution is permitted without permission. We are grateful to them.
  1. ^ Hill, Donald. Islamic Science and Engineering. 1993. Edinburgh University Press. ISBN 0-7486-0455-3 p.222
  2. ^ Department of Trade and Industry: ranking
  3. ^ Education and training put Iran ahead of richer states
  4. ^ Education and training put Iran ahead of richer states
  5. ^ Nature: News Feature
  6. ^ Pediatric hematology and oncology in Iran: past and present state.
  7. ^ 'Top technology' woman announced
  8. ^ Research leaders of the year
  9. ^ C. Elgood, A medical history of Persia, Cambridge Univ. Press. p.173
  10. ^ See link: [1]
  11. ^ History of headache in medieval Persian medicine, THE LANCET Volume 1, Issue 8, December 2002, Pages 510-515
  12. ^ Edward Granville Browne, Islamic Medicine, Goodword Books, 2002, ISBN 81-87570-19-9 p.79

[edit] See also

[edit] General

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The first six rows of Khayyam-Pascal's triangle

[edit] Prominent organizations

[edit] Highly cited Iranian scientists

[edit] External links

A few scientific figures who promoted world-class research in Iran: C. Lucas, M.R. Darafsheh, V. Karimipour and M.R. Zarrindast
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A few scientific figures who promoted world-class research in Iran: C. Lucas, M.R. Darafsheh, V. Karimipour and M.R. Zarrindast

[edit] Prominent scientific organizations of Iran

[edit] Provincial science parks

[edit] Other

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