Sayyid Qutb

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

You have new messages (last change).
This article has been nominated to be checked for its neutrality.
Discussion of this nomination can be found on the talk page.
Sayyid Qutb
Enlarge
Sayyid Qutb

Sayyid Qutb (IPA pronunciation: ['saɪjɪd 'kʌtəb]) (Arabic: سيد قطب‎; 9 October 1906 (The Library of Congress has his birth year as 1903). – 29 August 1966) was an Egyptian intellectual author, and Islamist associated with the Egyptian Muslim Brotherhood. He is best known for his theoretical work on redefining the role of Islamic fundamentalism in social and political change, particularly in his book Ma'alim fi-l-Tariq (Milestones). His extensive Quranic commentary Fi zilal al-Qur'an (In the shades of the Qur'an) has contributed significantly to modern perceptions of Islamic concepts such as jihad, jahiliyyah, and ummah.

Alternative spellings of his first and last names include Saïd, Syed, Koteb (rather common), Qutub, Kotb, etc.

Contents

[edit] Life and public career

Qutb was raised in the Egyptian village of Musha and educated from a young age in the Qur'an. He moved to Cairo, where he received a Western education between 1929 and 1933, before starting his career as a teacher in the Ministry of Public Instruction. During his early career, Qutb devoted himself to literature as an author and critic, writing such novels as Ashwak (Thorns) and even elevating Egyptian novelist Naguib Mahfouz from obscurity. In 1939 he became a functionary in Egypt's Ministry of Education (wizarat al-ma'arif). From 1948 to 1950 he went to the United States on a scholarship to study the educational system, receiving a master's degree from the Colorado State College of Education (now the University of Northern Colorado). Qutb's first major theoretical work of religious social criticism, Al-'adala al-Ijtima'iyya fi-l-Islam (Social Justice in Islam), was published in 1949, during his time overseas.

Aside from his untimely end Qutb's personal life was not always happy. Though Islam gave him much peace and contentment[1] he suffered from respiratory and other health problems throughout his life, and was known for "his introvertedness, isolation, depression and concern." In appearance he was "pale with sleepy eyes."[2] Qutb never married, in part because of his steadfast religious convictions. While the urban Egyptian society he lived in was becoming more Westernized, Qutb believed the Quran (Surat al-Nisa, 4:32) taught women that `Men are the managers of women's affairs ...' [3] Qutb lamented to his readers that he was never able to find a woman of sufficient "moral purity and discretion" and had to reconcile himself to bachelorhood. [4]

Qutb was extremely critical of many things in the United States, its racism, materialism, individual freedom, its economic system, poor haircuts, [5] triviality, restrictions on divorce, enthusiasm for sports, "animal-like" mixing of the sexes (which went on even in churches), [6] and lack of support for the Palestinian struggle. In an article published in Egypt after his travels, he noted with disapproval the sexuality of Americans

the American girl is well acquainted with her body's seductive capacity. She knows it lies in the face, and in expressive eyes, and thirsty lips. She knows seductiveness lies in the round breasts, the full buttocks, and in the shapely thighs, sleek legs -- and she shows all this and does not hide it. [7]

... and their taste in music

Jazz is his preferred music, and it is created by Negroes to satisfy their love of noise and to whet their sexual desires ... [8]

Qutb concluded that major aspects of American life were "primitive" and shocking. His experiences in the U.S. partly formed the impetus for his rejection of Western values and his move towards radicalism upon returning to Egypt. Resigning from the civil service, he joined the Brotherhood in the early 1950s[9] and became editor-in-chief of the Brothers' weekly Al-Ikhwan al-Muslimin, and later head of the propaganda section, as well as an appointed member of the Working Committee and of the Guidance Council, the highest branch in the Brotherhood. [10]

Qutb was imprisoned for ten years, from 1954-1964
Enlarge
Qutb was imprisoned for ten years, from 1954-1964

In June 1952 Egypt's pro-Western government was overthrown by the nationalist Free Officers Movement headed by Gamal Abdel Nasser. Both Qutb and the Muslim Brotherhood welcomed the coup against the monarchist government -- which they saw as unIslamic and subservient to British imperialism -- and enjoyed a close relationship with the Movement prior to and immediately following the coup. Many members of the Brotherhood expected Nasser to establish an Islamic government. However, the cooperation between the Brotherhood and Free Officers which marked the revolution's success soon soured as it became clear the secular nationalist ideology of Nasserism was incompatible with the Islamism of the Brotherhood. Nasser's regime refused to ban alcohol or implement other parts of sharia law.

After the attempted assassination of Nasser in 1954, the Egyptian government used the incident to justify a crackdown on the Muslim Brotherhood, imprisoning Qutb and many others for their vocal opposition to various government policies. While in prison, Qutb wrote his two most important works: a commentary of the Qur'an Fi zilal al-Qur'an (In the Shade of the Qur'an), and a manifesto of political Islam called Ma'alim fi-l-Tariq (Milestones). These works represent the final form of Qutb's thought, encompassing his radical, antiestablishment claims based on his interpretations of the Qur'an, Islamic history, and the social and political problems of Egypt. The school of thought he inspired has become known as Qutbism.

Qutb was let out of prison at the end of 1964 at the behest of the then Prime Minister of Iraq, Abdul Salam Arif, for only eight months before being rearrested in August 1965. He was accused of plotting to overthrow the state and subjected to what some consider a show trial. Many of the charges placed against Qutb in court were taken directly from Ma'alim fi-l-Tariq and he adamantly supported his written statements. The trial culminated in a death sentence for Qutb and six other members of the Muslim Brotherhood.[11] On 29 August 1966, Sayyid Qutb was executed by hanging.

[edit] Evolution of thought

There have been various theories advanced as to why Qutb turned from a secular reformist in the 1930's to a radical Islamist in the 1950's (the latter clearly evidenced in Ma'alim fi-l-Tariq).[12] One common explanation is that the conditions he witnessed in prison from 1954-1964, including the torture and murder of Muslim Brothers, convinced him that only a government bound by Islamic law could prevent such abuses. Another theory is that Qutb's experiences in America and the insufficiently anti-Western policies of Nasser demonstrated to him the powerful and dangerous allure of Jahiliyya - a threat unimaginable, in Qutb's estimation, to the secular mind. Finally, Qutb offered his own explanation in Ma'alim fi-l-Tariq, arguing that anything non-Islamic was evil and corrupt, while following Sharia as a complete system extending into all aspects of life, would bring every kind of benefit to humanity, from personal and social peace, to the "treasures" of the universe. [13]

In general, Qutb's experiences as an Egyptian - his village childhood, professional career, and activism in the Muslim Brotherhood - left an unmistakable mark on his theoretical and religious works. Even Qutb's early, secular writing shows evidence of his later themes. For example, Qutb's autobiography of his childhood Tifl min al-Qarya (A Child From the Village) makes little mention of Islam or political theory and is typically classified as a secular, literary work. However, it is replete with references to village mysticism, superstition, the Qur'an, and incidences of injustice. Qutb's later work developed along similar themes, dealing with Qur'anic exegesis, social justice, and political Islam.

Qutb's career as a writer also heavily influenced his philosophy. In al-Tafsir al-Fanni fil-Quran (Artistic Representation in the Qur'an), Qutb developed a literary appreciation of the Qur'an and a complementary methodology for interpreting the text. His hermaneutics were applied in his extensive commentary on the Qur'an, Fi zilal al-Qur'an (In the Shade of the Quran), which served as the foundation for the radical declarations of Ma'alim fi-l-Tariq.

Late in his life, Qutb synthesized his personal experiences and intellectual development into a body of religious and political convictions, published in the famous Ma'alim fi-l-Tariq. This work summarized Qutb's general views on the true Islamic system. It was also in this text that Qutb clearly condemned secular governments, like Abdul Nasser's regime in Egypt, who based their legitimacy on human authority or consent. This work, more than any other, established Qutb as one of the premier radical Islamists in the 20th century.

[edit] Political philosophy

Whether he esposed dictatorship, or later rule by Sharia law with essentially no government at all, Sayyid Qutb's mature political views always centered on Islam - Islam as a complete system of morality, justice and governance, whose Sharia laws and principles should be the sole basis of governance and everything else in life. On the issue of Islamic governance, Qutb differed with many modernist and reformist Muslims who claimed democracy was Islamic because the Quranic institution of Shura supported elections and democracy. Qutb pointed out that the Shura chapter of the Qur'an was revealed during the Mekkan period, and therefore, it does not deal with the problem of government. [14] It makes no reference to elections and calls only for the ruler to consult some of the ruled, as a particular case of the general rule of Shura [15] and argued a `just dictatorship` would be more Islamic. [16] Qutb also opposed the then popular ideology of Arab nationalism, having become disallusioned with the 1952 Nasser Revolution and exposed to regime's practices of arbitrary arrest, torture, and deadly violence during his imprisonment.

[edit] Jahiliyya vs. freedom

This exposure to abuse of power undoubtedly contributed to the ideas in his famous prison-written Islamic manifesto Ma'alim fi-l-Tariq where he argued:

  • The Muslim world had ceased to be and reverted to pre-Islamic ignorance known as Jahiliyya, because of the lack of sharia law. All non-Islamic states are thus illegitimate, including that of his native land Egypt
  • Rather than rule by a pious few, (or democratic representation [17]), Muslims should resist any system where men are in "servitude to other men" as un-Islamic. A truly Islamic polity would not even have theocratic rulers.
  • The way to bring about this freedom was for a revolutionary vanguard [18] to fight Jahiliyyah with a two-fold approach: preaching, and abolishing the organizations and authorities of the Jahili system by "physical power and Jihaad."

The vanguard movement would grow until it formed a truly Islamic community, then spread throughout the Islamic homeland and finally throughout the entire world.

Qutb emphasized this struggle would be anything but easy. True Islam would transform every aspect of society, eliminating everything non-Muslim. Jahili erzatz-Muslims, Jews and Westerners would all fight and conspire against Islam and the elimination of Jahiliyyah. True Muslims could look forward to lives of "poverty, difficulty, frustration, torment and sacrifice."

Main article: Ma'alim fi-l-Tariq

Although earlier Muslims (Ibn Taymiyya, Sayyid Abul Ala Maududi and Muhammad ibn Abdul Wahhab) had used Jahiliyya to refer to contemporary Muslim societies, no one before Qutb had applied it so widely, nor had such popular response. While Islam had seen many religious revivals urging a return to religious fundamentals throughout its history, Qutb was the first thinker who paired them to a radical, sociopolitical ideology.[19]

[edit] Criticisms

Criticism of Qutb's ideas comes from several, sometimes opposite, directions.

  • Following the publication of Milestones and the aborted plot against the Nasser government, mainstream Muslims took issue with Qutb's contention that "physical power" and jihad had to be used to overthrow governments, and attack societies, "institutions and traditions" of the Muslim (but according to Qutb jahili) world. [2] The ulema of al-Azhar school took the unusual step following his death of putting Sayyid Qutb on their index of heresy, declaring him a "deviant" (munharif). [20]
  • Conservative/puritan criticism went further, condemning Qutb's Islamist/reformist ideas -- such as social justice and redistributive economics, [3][4][5] banning of slavery, [6] [21] freedom of religion [22] -- as "western" and bid'ah or innovative (innovations to Islam being forbidden ipso facto). They have accused Qutb of amateur scholarship, overuse of ijtihad, and of lack of respect for Islamic traditions, for prophets and for early Muslims[7]
  • Reformist Muslims, on the other hand, questioned his understanding of sharia, i.e. that it is not only perfect and complete, but completely accessible to mortals and thus the solution to any of their problems [8] [23]
  • And finally, following the 9/11 attacks, Westerners looking for who and what may have inspired Al-Qaeda discovered Qutb and found many of his ideas not too Western, but too anti-Western. [9] Complaints here include that contrary to what Qutb preaches, neither the Jews nor the West are conspiring against Islam; that the West is neither "evil and corrupt" nor a "rubbish heap;" that an offensive jihad to establish Islamic rule (or "the sovereignty of God and His Lordship") "throughout the world," would not be liberation but aggression, and finally that Qutb's call for the destruction of jahili Muslim governments may have roused terrorist jihadis to attack Western countries, thinking that Western aid and military stands in the way of the destruction of those "jahili" governments. [10][11]

[edit] Legacy

Alongside notable Islamists like Maulana Mawdudi, Hasan al-Banna, and Ruhollah Khomeini, Qutb is considered one of the most influential Muslim thinkers or activists of the modern era, not only for his ideas but for what many consider his heroic martyr's death.

His written works are still widely available and have been translated into many Western languages. Qutb's best known work is Ma'alim fi-l-Tariq (Milestones), but the majority of Qutb's theory can be found in his Qur'anic commentary Fi zilal al-Qur'an (In the Shade of the Quran). This 30-volume work is noteworthy for its innovative method of interpretation, borrowing heavily from the literary analysis of Amin al-Khuli, while retaining some structural features of classical commentaries (for example, the practice of progressing from the first sura to the last).

The influence of his work extends to issues such as Westernization, modernization, and political reform and the theory of inevitable ideological conflict between "Islam and the West" (see Clash of civilizations), the notion of a transnational umma, and the comprehensive application of jihad.

In terms of politics, his theoretical work on Islamic advocacy, social justice and education, has left a significant mark on the Muslim Brotherhood (which is still actively involved in Egyptian politics and has related organizations in many countries around the world).

In terms of lives lost and property destroyed, Qutb's greatest impact has been through Islamic insurgent/terror groups in Egypt [12] and elsewhere. His influence on Al Qaeda was felt through his brother, Muhammad Qutb, who moved to Saudi Arabia following his release from prison in Egypt and became a professor of Islamic Studies and edited, published and promoted his brother Sayyid's work. [24] One of Muhammad Qutb's students and an ardent follower was Ayman Zawahiri, who went on to be a member of the Egyptian Islamic Jihad terror group [25] and then the mentor of Osama bin Laden. [13] Zawahiri paid homage to Qutb in his work Knights under the Prophet's Banner. [26]

[edit] Works

Literary:

  • Mahammat al-Sha'ir fi'l-Hayah wa Shi'r al-Jil al-Hadir (The Task of the Poet in Life and the Poetry of the Contemporary Generation), 1933
  • al-Shati al-Majhul (The Unknown Beach), 1935
  • Naqd Kitab: Mustaqbal al-Thaqafa fi Misr (Critique of a Book [by Taha Husain]: the Future of Culture in Egypt), 1939
  • Al-Taswir al-Fanni fi'l-Qu'ran (Artistic Imagery in the Qur'an), 1945
  • Al-Atyaf al-Arba'a (The Four Apparitions), 1945
  • Tifl min al-Qarya (A Child from the Village), 1946
  • Al-Madina al-Mashura (The Enchanted City), 1946
  • Kutub wa Shakhsiyyat (Books and Personalities), 1946
  • Askwak (Thorns), 1947
  • Mashahid al-Qiyama fi'l-Qur'an (Aspects of Resurrection in the Qu'ran), 1946
  • Al-Naqd al-Adabi: Usuluhu wa Manahijuhu (Literary Criticism: It's Foundation and Methods'), 1948

Theoretical:

  • Al-Adala al-Ijtima'iyya fi'l-Islam (Social Justice in Islam), 1949
  • Ma'arakat al-Islam wa'l-Ra's Maliyya (The Battle Between Islam and Capitalism), 1951
  • Al-Salam al-'Alami wa'l-Islam (World Peace and Islam), 1951
  • Fi Zilal al-Qur'an (In the Shade of the Qur'an), first installment 1954
  • Dirasat Islamiyya (Islamic Studies), 1953
  • Hadha'l-Din (This Religion), n.d. (after 1954)
  • Al-Mustaqbal li-hadha'l-Din (The Future of This Religion), n.d. (after 1954)
  • Khasais al-Tasawwar al-Islami wa Muqawamatuhu (The Characteristics and Values of Islamic Conduct), 1960
  • Al-Islam wa Mushkilat al-Hadara (Islam and the Problems of Civilization), n.d. (after 1954)
  • Ma'alim fi'l-Tariq (Signposts on the Road, or Milestones), 1964

[edit] See also

[edit] References

  1. ^ Sayyed said about the Qur'an: "Allah have bestowed upon me with the life in the sades of the Qur'an for a period of time, I have tasted, during it, of his grace and beneficence, what I have never tasted at all in my life." Fi zilal al-Qur'an, Introduction, 1st Chapter.
  2. ^ Hamudah, Adil, Sayyid Qutb: min al-qarya ila al-mashnaqa (Cairo, Ruz al-Yusuf, 1987), p.60-61, quoted in Moussalli (1992), p.35
  3. ^ SHEPARD, William, Sayyid Qutb and Islamic Activism: a translation and critical analysis of Social Justice in Islam Leiden, EJ. Brill, 1996, p.62
  4. ^ Qutb, Sayyid, Dan-bat al-tatawwur, Majallat al-Shu'un al-Ijtima`iyya fi al-Islam, 1940, 6, 43-6, quoted in Calvert (2000)
  5. ^ David Von Drehle, A Lesson In Hate Smithsonian Magazine
  6. ^ Qutb, Milestones, p.139
  7. ^ Amrika allati Ra'aytu (America that I Saw) quoted on http://gemsofislamism.tripod.com/milestones_qutb.html#footnote_16
  8. ^ Amrika allati Ra'aytu (America that I Saw) quoted on Calvert (2000)
  9. ^ 1953 according to Calvert (2000), 1951 according Kepel (1985)
  10. ^ Moussalli, Radical Islamic Fundamentalism, (1992), p.31-2
  11. ^ Qutb was executed despite the fact that he was not the instigator or leader of the plot to assassinate the President and other Egyptian officials and personalities, only the leader of the group planning it.
    (Sivan (1985) p.93.; Fouad Ajami, "In the Pharaoh's Shadow: Religion and Authority in Egypt," Islam in the Political Process, editor James P. Piscatori, Cambridge University Press, 1983, p. 25-26.)
  12. ^ Milestone
  13. ^ Qutb, Milestones, p.90, 32
  14. ^ Qutb, Sayyed Fi Zilal Quran
  15. ^ Sivan, Radical Islam, 1985, p.73
  16. ^ al-Akhbar, August 8, 1952
  17. ^ "assemblies of men which have absolute power to legislate laws" is unIslamic as well (Milestones, p.82)
  18. ^ Though Qutb's program for a vanguard to lead a revolutionary bears some resemblance to Vladimir Lenin's Communist Party, he was strongly opposed to Communism (and all other Western ideologies).
  19. ^ Rubin, Barry (2002). Islamic Fundamentalism In Egyptian Politics, 2nd ed., Palgrave Macmillan. p. 14.
  20. ^ Kepel, 1986, p.58
  21. ^ "The Heresies of Sayyid Qutb in Light of the Statements of the Ulamaa"
  22. ^ [1]
  23. ^ Abou El Fadl, Khalid, The Great Theft, Harper San Francisco, 2005, p.1982
  24. ^ Kepel, Gilles, The War for Muslim Minds : Islam and the West p.174-5, Jihad: The Trail of Political Islam, p.51
  25. ^ Sageman, Marc, Understanding Terror Networks, University of Pennsylvania Press, 2004, p.63
  26. ^ http://gemsofislamism.tripod.com/milestones_qutb.html#footnote_24

[edit] Bibliography

  • Calvert, John (2000), "`The World is an Undutiful Boy!`: Sayyid Qutb's American Experience," Islam and Christian-Muslim Relations, Vol.II, No.1, pp.87-103:98.
  • Curtis, Adam (2005). The Power of Nightmares: The Rise of the Politics of Fear. BBC.
  • Damir-Geilsdorf, Sabine (2003). Der islamische Wegbereiter Sayyid Qutb und seine Rezeption. Würzburg.
  • Haddad, Yvonne Y. (1983). “Sayyid Qutb: ideologue of Islamic revival”, Esposito, J.: Voices of the Islamic Revolution.
  • Kepel, Gilles (1985). The Prophet and Pharaoh: Muslim Extremism in Egypt. Al Saqi. ISBN 0-86356-118-7.
  • Moussalli, Ahmad S. (1992). Radical Islamic Fundamentalism: the Ideological and Political Discourse of Sayyid Qutb. American University of Beirut.
  • Shepard, William E. (1996). Sayyid Qutb and Islamic Activism. A Translation and Critical Analysis of "Social Justice in Islam". Leiden.
  • Sivan, Emmanuel (1985). Radical Islam : Medieval Theology and Modern Politics. Yale University Press.
  • Qutb, Sayyid (2003). Milestones. Kazi Publications. ISBN 1-56744-494-6.
  • Qutb, Sayyid (2003). J. Calvert & W. Shepard: A Child From the Village. Syracuse University Press. ISBN 0-8156-0805-5.

[edit] External links

Persondata
NAME Qutb, Sayyid
ALTERNATIVE NAMES سيد قطب (Arabic)
SHORT DESCRIPTION Egyptian theorist and Islamist
DATE OF BIRTH October 9, 1906
PLACE OF BIRTH Musha, Egypt
DATE OF DEATH 29 August 1966
PLACE OF DEATH
Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org../../../s/a/y/Sayyid_Qutb_97ce.html"