User:Runningonbrains/tornado/intensity and damage

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[edit] Intensity and damage

Tornadoes vary in intensity regardless of shape, size, and location.^[1] While strong tornadoes are typically larger than weak tornadoes, there are several instances of F5 tornadoes with damage paths less than 500 feet (150 m) wide.^[2]

One of the earliest photographs of a tornado. Taken in Norton, Kansas on June 24, 1909.

[edit] History of tornado intensity measurements

For many years, before the advent of home movies and doppler radar, scientists had nothing more than educated guesses as to the speed of the winds in a tornado. The only evidence indicating the wind speeds found in the tornado was the damage left behind by tornadoes which struck populated areas. Some thought they might exceed 500 mph, and perhaps even be supersonic.

In the 1950s, however, evidence mounted that the actual wind speeds were much lower than this. On April 2, 1957, a slow moving tornado traversed the south and east parts of Dallas, Texas. Before this day, only a few photographs and motion pictures of tornadoes were known to exist. However, because of many factors, including the tornado's high visibility, slow forward motion, and proximity to an urban center, it became (and still may be) the most filmed and photographed tornado in history. Frame-by-frame analysis of several pieces of footage taken that day showed that the debris flung about by the tornado was travelling at speeds up to 170 mph.^[3] Scientists had thought that faster wind speeds would produce the severe damage seen that day, so this tornado gave them their first real clue as to the range of tornado speeds.

A diagram of the Fujita scale as it relates to the Beaufort scale and the Mach number scale.

In 1971, Dr. Tetsuya Theodore Fujita introduced the idea for a scale of tornado winds. With the help of colleague Allen Pearson, he created and introduced what came to be called the Fujita scale in 1973. The scale was based on a relationship between the Beaufort scale and the Mach number scale; the low end of F1 on his scale corresponds to the low end of B12 on the Beaufort scale, and the low end of F12 corresponds to the speed of sound at sea level, or Mach 1. In practice, tornadoes are only assigned categories F0 through F5.

The TORRO scale, developed by the Tornado and Storm Research Organisation (TORRO), was developed in 1974, and published a year later. The TORRO scale has 12 levels, which cover a broader range with tighter graduations. It ranges from a T0 for extremely weak tornadoes to T11 for the most powerful known tornadoes.^[4]

There is some debate as to the usefulness of the TORRO scale over the Fujita scale—while it may be helpful for statistical purposes to have more levels of tornado strength, often the damage caused could be created by a large range of winds, so it is nearly impossible to narrow the tornado down to a single TORRO scale category. Worldwide, the preferred scale for measuring the intensity of a tornado is the Fujita scale. The United Kingdom and some other areas of Europe use the TORRO scale. The ranking of a tornado on either scale is determined by Doppler radar wind speed data (if available), videogrammetry (frame-by-frame analysis of video footage), and empirical data derived from damage to structures and vegitation.

Research conducted in the late 1980s and 1990s suggested that, even with the implication of the Fujita scale, tornado winds were notoriously overestimated, especially in significant and violent tornadoes. Because of this, in 2006, the American Meteorological Society introduced the Enhanced Fujita Scale, to help assign realistic wind speeds to tornado damage. The scientists specifically designed the scale so that a tornado assessed on the Fujita scale and the Enhanced Fujita scale would receive the same ranking. The EF-scale is more specific in detailing the degrees of damage on different types of structures for a given wind speed. While the F-scale goes from F0 to F12 in theory, the EF-scale is capped at EF5, which is defined as "winds ≥ 200 mph (≥ 320 km/h)".^[5] In the United States, the Enhanced Fujita scale will be used for tornado damage assessments beginning February 2, 2007.

The first observation which confirmed that F5 winds could occur happened on April 26, 1991. A tornado near Red Rock, Oklahoma was monitored by scientists using a portable Doppler radar, an experimental radar device that measures wind speed. Near the tornado's peak intensity, they recorded a wind speed of 115-120 m/s (257-268 mph or 414-432 km/h). Though the portable radar had uncertainty of ± 5-10 m/s (± 11-22 mph or ± 18-36 km/h), this reading was probably within the F5 range, confirming that tornadoes were capable of violent winds found nowhere else on earth.

Eight years later, during the Oklahoma Tornado Outbreak of May 3, 1999, another scientific team was monitoring an exceptionally violent tornado (one which would eventually kill 36 people in the area near Moore, Oklahoma). At about 7 pm, they recorded one measurement of 318 mph ^[6], 50 mph faster than the previous record. Though this reading is just short of the theoretical F6 rating, the measurement was taken more than 100 feet in the air, where winds are typically stronger than at the surface. In rating tornadoes, only surface wind speeds, or the wind speeds indicated by the damage resulting from the tornado, are taken into account.

[edit] Typical intensity

The only country which has a thorough, long-term statistical database for tornadoes is the United States. However, even this data has not been consistant over its 56-year period. Since

THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN EL NINO, LA NINA, AND UNITED STATES TORNADO ACTIVITY ^[7]

In the United States, F0 and F1 (T0 through T3) tornadoes account for 80% of all tornadoes. On the other hand, violent tornadoes (stronger than F4, T8), account for less than 1%.^[8] Worldwide, strong tornadoes account for an even smaller percentage of total tornadoes. Violent tornadoes are extremely rare outside of the United States and Bangladesh.

An example of F0 damage. The only significant damage to structures in this picture was caused by tree branches which fell due to the tornado's winds. Even though well-built structures are typically unscathed by F0 tornadoes, falling trees and tree branches can injure and kill people, even when they are inside a sturdy structure.

An example of F1 damage. F1 tornadoes cause major damage to mobile homes and automobiles, and can cause minor structural damage to even well-constructed homes. This particular mobile home appears to be a double-wide, better constructed than most, and it was still moved off its foundations, with its roof badly damaged. A mobile home or car is a very poor shelter, even during severe thunderstorms which do not contain a tornado.

An example of F2 damage. At this intensity, cosmetic damage to well-built structures becomes a bit more significant, damaging roofs, collapsing outer walls, and generating large amounts of flying debris. This wood-frame home, though poorly built, was completely unroofed, with many outer walls collapsed or destroyed.

An example of F3 damage. Here, the roof and some inner walls of the brick building have been demolished. While taking shelter in a basement or cellar (if available) or an inner room improves your odds of surviving a tornado drastically, occasionally even this is not enough. F3 and stronger tornadoes are highly unusual—they only account for about 6% of all tornadoes in the United States, and yet since 1980 they have accounted for more than 75% of tornado-related deaths.

An example of F4 damage. Above-ground structures are almost completely vulnerable to F4 tornadoes, which level well-built structures, toss trains, planes, and automobiles through the air, and uproot trees, turning them into flying missiles.

An example of F5 damage. These tornadoes cause unbelievable destruction, obliterating and sweeping away almost anything in their paths. Fortunately, they are extremely rare (the Moore, Oklahoma tornado was the last one reported anywhere in the world), and on average only a small portion of the tornado's path contains F5 damage. While these tornadoes often destroy everything in their path, it is possible to survive. A woman and her daughter who lived in Jarrell, Texas survived a direct hit by lying down in her bathtub as the tornado swept the rest of her house away, killing her husband who took shelter nearby. ^[9].

[edit] Typical damage

Further information: Fujita scale

As stated in the lede section, a typical tornado has winds of 110 mph (175 km/h) or less, is approximately 250 feet (75 meters) across, and travels a mile (1.6 km) or so before dissipating. However, there is no such thing as a typical tornado.

Two tornadoes, which look almost exactly the same, can produce drastically different effects. Also, two tornadoes which look very different can produce similar damage. This is due to the fact that tornadoes form by several different mechanisms, and also that they follow a life cycle which causes the same tornado to change in appearence over time. People in the path of a tornado should never attempt to determine its strength as it approaches. Between 1997 and 2005 in the United States, 38 people were killed by F1 tornadoes, and 3 were killed by F0 tornadoes.^[10] Even the weakest tornado can kill.

• Weak tornadoes

As stated in the previous section, an overwhelming majority of tornadoes are designated F1 or F0, also known as "weak" tornadoes. However, weak is a relative term for tornadoes, as even these can cause significant damage. F0 and F1 tornadoes are typically short-lived—since 1980 almost 75% of tornadoes rated weak stayed on the ground for one mile or less.^[2] However, in this time, they can cause both damage and fatalities.

F0 damage is characterized by superficial damage to structures and vegitation. Well-built structures are typically unscathed, sometimes sustaining broken windows, with minor damage to roofs and chimneys. Billboards and large signs can be knocked down. Trees have large branches broken off, and can be uprooted if they have shallow roots.

F1 damage has caused significantly more fatalities than that caused by F0 tornadoes. At this level, damage to mobile homes and other temporary structures becomes significant, and cars and other vehicles can be pushed off the road. Permanent structures can suffer major damage to their roofs.

• Significant tornadoes

Approximately blahdy blahdy blah are more uncommon but cause many more fatalities blahdy blahdy blah.

F2 tornadoes are the lower end of "significant", and yet are stronger than most tropical cyclones (though tropical cyclones affect a much larger area). Well-built structures can suffer serious damage, including roof loss and collapse of outer walls. Mobile homes, however, are almost totally destroyed. Vehicles can be lifted off the ground, and lighter objects can become small missiles, causing damage outside of the tornado's main path. Wooded areas will have a large percentage of their trees snapped or uprooted.

F3 damage is a serious risk to life and limb. Few parts of affected buildings are left standing; well-built structures lose outer and inner walls. Cars are lifted off the ground, and can be tossed through the air for some distance. Wooded areas will suffer almost total loss of vegitation.

• Violent tornadoes

F4 damage typically results in a total loss of the affected structure. Well-built homes are reduced to a short pile of debris. Even heavy vehicles can become airborne, with very large projectiles being flung some distance.

F5 damage is almost always total. F5 tornadoes demolish well-built houses and sweep the foundation clean. The official description of this damage states that "incredible phenomena will occur". In history, F5 tornadoes have twisted skyscrapers, and stripped asphalt from the ground. (add more with List of F5 tornadoes)

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