Roman military personal equipment
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Roman military personal equipment was not, as is popularly believed, of a better quality than that used by the majority of its adversaries[1]. It was however produced in large numbers to established patterns.
Contents |
[edit] Personal weapons
[edit] Pugio
A pugio is a small dagger used by Roman soldiers. It seems likely that the pugio was an auxiliary weapon that was used only when all else had been lost. It was most likely adopted from the Carthaginians during the Punic Wars along with the Roman gladius.[2] The pugio was worn on a Legionary's left, whereas a Centurions wore the pugio on the right.
Like other items of legionary equipment, the dagger was undergoing some changes during the 1st century. Generally, it had a large, leaf-shaped blade 7" to 11" long and 2" or more in width. A raised midrib ran the length of each side, either simply standing out from the face or defined by grooves on either side. The tang was wide and flat initially, and the grip was riveted through it, as well as through the shoulders of the blade.
Around 50, a rod tang was introduced, and the hilt was no longer riveted through the shoulders of the blade. This in itself caused no great change to the pugio's appearance, but some of these later blades were narrower (under 1 3/4" wide), and/or had little or no waisting, and/or had reduced or vestigial midribs.
Throughout the period the outline of the hilt remained basically the same. It was made with two layers of horn or wood sandwiching the tang, each overlaid with a thin metal plate. Occasionally the hilt was decorated with engraving or inlay. Note that the hilt is 4"-5" long overall and that the grip is quite narrow; it will always seem to be too small.
[edit] Gladius
Gladius is Latin for "sword" (in general). Today it refers specifically to the short sword, 60 cm (24 inches) long, used by Roman legionaries from the 3rd century BC (based on the swords of the Celtiberians) and designed specifically for making short, powerful thrusts. Several different designs were used; among collectors and historical reenactors, the three primary kinds are known as the Mainz gladius, the Fulham gladius, and the Pompeii gladius (these names refer to where or how the canonical example was found). More recent archeological finds have uncovered an earlier version, the gladius hispaniensis ("Spanish sword"). Contrary to common belief, the gladius was not used by gladiators, who used a version with a shorter blade (30 cm–35 cm/12 in.–14 in. long).
The gladius was crafted from soft iron and the exterior was carburized using coal dust on the face of the anvil. This was necessary because the soft iron was not hard enough to have taken an edge before the carbon of the coal powder was added to the exterior of the blade.
While each of the different identified types of gladius have distinct features, mostly in blade shape and size, the common Pompeii style gladius was straight and double-edged, with a V-shaped tip, and primarily constructed for thrusting action and use together with a large rectangular shield, the scutum. The cross-section of the gladius is typically a rhombus, providing the blade with good stability for stabbing. Stabbing was a very efficient technique as stabbing wounds, especially in the abdominal area, were almost always deadly. However, the gladius was also an efficient cutting weapon, and this property is amply demonstrated by Livy's account of the Macedonian Wars wherein the Macedonian soldiers were horrified to see the grievous wounds caused by the Roman blades. [1]
A Roman legionary would mount the vagina (scabbard) holding the gladius on the right side, the same side as his sword hand[citation needed]. This is thought to be in order to allow a formation of soldiers to easily draw their swords without interfering with their shield or affecting soldiers to either side. This conjecture is supported by the fact that left-handed legionaries were not interspersed with other soliders but assembled in separate units[citation needed]. A debated exception to this uniformity were centurions who, according to some sources, wore their gladii mounted on the left as a mark of distinction[citation needed]. As they often stood outside the regular ranks of the unit, even in combat, this may not have been problematic in regards to drawing the weapon in the battle line.
[edit] Hasta
Hasta is a Latin word meaning spear. Hastae were carried by early Roman Legionaries, in particular they were carried by and gave their name to those Roman soldiers known as Hastati. However, during Republican times, the hastati were re-armed with pila and gladii and the hasta was only retained by the triarii.
A hasta was about six feet in length with a shaft generally made from ash, the head was of iron.
From Tacitus and other Roman writers, we know that a hasta pura was given as a decoration. Such decorations were bestowed upon soldiers by Roman generals, more especially for saving the life of a fellow-citizen:
- In this engagement Rufus Helvius, a common soldier, won the honour of saving a citizen's life, and was rewarded by Apronius with a torc and a spear. To these the emperor added the civic crown, complaining, but without anger, that Apronius had not used his right as proconsul to bestow this further distinction. [2][3]
Also, such a gift is sometimes recorded in funereal inscriptions.
A hasta was also used as a sign that would be conventionally understood in Roman culture as announcing an auction. Hence, an auction was called hasta and an auction-room a hastarium.
[edit] Javelin
Although Romans used the word pila to refer to all thrown javelins, the term pilum has come to means specifically the heavy Roman throwing spear of the legions. Lighter, shorter javelins existed also, such as those used by the velites and the early legions.
[edit] Pilum
The pilum (plural pila) was a throwing spear commonly used by the Roman army in ancient times. It was generally about two meters long overall, consisting of an iron shank about 7 mm in diameter and 60 cm long with pyramidal head. The iron shank may be socketed or more usually widens to a flat tang, this was secured to a wooden shaft. A pilum usually weighed between two and four kilograms, with the versions produced during the Empire being a bit lighter. Some versions of the weapon could have been weighted by a lead ball to increase penetrative power, but evidence has not been found yet. Recent experiments have shown pila to have a range of 98 feet (approximately 30 m), although effective range of about half to two thirds that distance.
Legionaries of the Late Republic and Early Empire often carried two pila, with one sometimes being lighter than the other. Standard tactics called for a Roman soldier to throw his pilum (both if there was time) at the enemy just before charging to engage with his gladius. Some pila had small hand-guards, to protect the wielder if he intended to use it as a melee weapon, but it does not appear that this was common.
The late Roman writer Vegetius, in his work De Re Militari, wrote:
- As to the missile weapons of the infantry, they were javelins headed with a triangular sharp iron, eleven inches or a foot long, and were called piles. When once fixed in the shield it was impossible to draw them out, and when thrown with force and skill, they penetrated the cuirass without difficulty. [4]
- And later in the same work:
- Their offensive weapons were large swords, called spathae, and smaller ones called semispathae together with five loaded javelins in the concavity of the shield, which they threw at the first charge. They had likewise two other javelins, the largest of which was composed of a staff five feet and a half long and a triangular head of iron nine inches long. This was formerly called the pilum, but now it is known by the name of spiculum. The soldiers were particularly exercised in the use of this weapon, because when thrown with force and skill it often penetrated the shields of the foot and the cuirasses of the horse. The other javelin was of smaller size; its triangular point was only five inches long and the staff three feet and one half. It was anciently called verriculum but now verutum. [5]
The small loaded (weighted) javelins to which Vegetius refers are weighted darts called plumbatae.
Thanks in part to experimental archaeology, it is generally believed that the pilum's design evolved to be armour-piercing: the pyramidal head would punch a small hole through an enemy shield allowing the thin shank to pass through and penetrate a distance sufficient to hit the target. The thick wooden shaft provided the weight behind the punch.
Most later pila were constructed such that the iron shank would bend on impact. A pilum, having penetrated a shield through a small hole and its shank having bent would now be difficult to remove. An enemy, if not killed by the pilum, would have little time before closing with the legionaries and would have to discard his now-unwieldy shield before going into combat. Additionally, bent pila would be less suitable for reuse by a resourceful opponent. Early pila do not seem to have had this characteristic; Gaius Marius is sometimes given credit for this modification. Opinion among archaeologists used to be that the main function of the shank was to disable the pilum by bending, but it is now thought that the pilum was a weapon designed primarily to kill, the 'non-return' aspect being an added bonus.
[edit] Spatha
Longer slashing swords of the late Empire. These slashing swords were normally issued to auxiliaries.
[edit] Bow
Allied troops and later sagitarii and others were armed with bows, firing arrows with a wooden shaft and iron head.
[edit] Dart
[edit] Torso armour
[edit] Lorica segmentata
The lorica segmentata was a type of armour primarily used in the Roman Empire, but the Latin name was first used in the 16th century (the ancient form is unknown). The armour itself consist of broad ferrous (iron or steel) strips ('girth hoops') fastened to internal leather straps. The strips were arranged horizontally on the body, overlapping downwards, and they surrounded the torso in two halves, being fastened at the front and back. The upper body and shoulders were protected by additional strips ('shoulder guards') and breast- and backplates. The form of the armour allowed it to be stored very compactly, since it was possible to separate it into four sections. During the time of its use, it was modified several times, the currently recognised types being the Kalkriese (c. 20 BC to 50), Corbridge (c. 40 to 120), and Newstead (c. 120 to 250) types.
So far as is known, only legionaries (heavy infantry of the Roman Legions) and Praetorians were issued with the lorica segmentata. Auxiliary forces would more commonly wear the Lorica hamata which is mail (frequently called chainmail) or Lorica squamata (scale armour).
[edit] Lorica hamata
The Lorica hamata is a type of chainmail armour used during the Roman Republic at late periods as a standard-issue armour for the secondary troops (Auxilia). They were mostly manufactured out of bronze or iron. It alternated with rows of closed washer-like rings, and riveted rings running horizontally, this produced a very flexible, reliable and strong armour. Each ring had an inside diameter of about 5 mm, and an outside diameter of about 7 mm. The shoulders of the Lorica hamata had flaps that were similar to the Greek 'Lithorax' which ran from about mid-back to the front of the torso, and were connected by Brass or Iron hooks which connected to studs riveted through the ends of the flaps. Several thousand rings would have gone into one Lorica Hamata.
The knowledge on the manufacturing of mail may have come from the Celts. There were several versions of this type of armour, specialized for different military duties such as skirmishers, cavalry and spearmen.
Although labor-intensive to manufacture, it is thought that, with good maintenance, they could be continually used for several decades. However modern testing has shown that this form of armour provided very little protection from enemy arrows to its users. It was later replaced by the more famous Lorica Segmentata that afforded greater protection for a third of the weight.
[edit] Lorica squamata
The Lorica squamata is a type of scale armour used during the Republic and at later periods. It was made from small metal scales sewn to a fabric backing. It is typically seen on depictions of standard bearers, musicians, centurions, cavalry troops, and even auxiliary infantry, but could be worn by regular legionaries as well. A shirt of scale armour was shaped in the same way as a lorica hamata, mid-thigh length with the shoulder doublings or cape.
The individual scales (squamae) were either iron or bronze, or even alternating metals on the same shirt. They could be tinned as well, one surviving fragment showing bronze scales that were alternately tinned and plain. The metal was generally not very thick, .020" to .032" perhaps being a common range. Since the scales overlapped in every direction, however, the multiple layers gave good protection. The size ranged from as small as 1/4" wide by 3/8" tall up to about 2" wide by 3" tall, with the most common sizes being roughly 1/2" by 1". Many have rounded bottoms, while others are pointed or have flat bottoms with the corners clipped off at an angle. The scales could be flat, or slightly domed, or have a raised midrib or edge. All the scales in a shirt would generally be of the same size; however, scales from different shirts may vary significantly.
The scales were wired together in horizontal rows that were then laced or sewn to the backing. Therefore, each scale had from four to 12 holes: two or more at each side for wiring to the next in the row, one or two at the top for fastening to the backing, and sometimes one or two at the bottom to secure the scales to the backing or to each other.
It is possible that the shirt could be opened either at the back or down one side so that it was easier to put on, the opening being closed by ties. Much has been written about scale armour’s supposed vulnerability to an upward thrust, but this is probably greatly exaggerated.
No examples of an entire lorica squamata have been found, but there have been several archaeological finds of fragments of such shirts and individual scales are quite common finds - even in non-military contexts.
[edit] Other
Light infantry, especially in the early Republic, were entirely unarmoured. If the wore any armour at all over their tunic, it would likely have consisted solely of stiff leather. This was both to allow swifter movement for light troops and also as a matter of cost.
[edit] Shields
[edit] Scutum
Scutum is the Latin word for shield, although it has in modern times come to be associated with the standard semi-cylindrical type carried by Roman legionaries. The Republican curved body shield was oval -- as is shown by the Altar of Domitius Ahenobarbus in Rome, the Aemilius Paullus monument at Delphi, or an actual example found at Kasr el-Harit in Egypt -- but gradually evolved into a rectangular (or sub-rectangular) shape during the early imperial period.
Rectangular scuta (pl.) - sometimes convex, sometimes flat[3] - were constructed largely of strips of overlapping bentwood (possibly set in place by steaming over a curved form (in much the same way as a modern plywood chair is made) although no direct evidence survives to prove this) covered with leather. This meant the shield was strong and yet light enough (about 5.5kg, or 7.5kg with a reinforced boss[4]) to be carried over long distances. The best surviving example, from Dura-Europos in Syria, was 1.06 m (48in) in height, a chord of 0.66 m (26in), with a distance around the curve of 0.86 m (34in), and a thicknes of 5 mm to 6 mm. The curved shape of the shield allowed it to absorb (and deal) heavy blows, while the sides sloped away from the attacker, allowing arrows and enemy blows to glance off without transmitting the full force of the impact to the legionary sheltering behind it. The boss in the centre of the shield (the umbo), constructed either from copper alloy (brass or bronze) or iron, was itself used offensively, being heavy and dense enough to stun or wind an opponent (easing the legionary's subsequent strike with his gladius). Legionaries would typically advance alternately with the scutum and then (with the scutum partially raised, crowding and blocking the opponent) with the gladius. The edges of the shield were also bound in brass or rawhide, to reinforce and protect them, and may also have been used offensively.
The shape of the scutum allowed packed formations of legionaries to overlap their shields to provide an effective barrier against missiles. The most novel (and specialised, for it afforded negligible protection against other attacks) use was the testudo (Latin for "tortoise"), which added legionaries holding shields from above to protect against descending missiles (such as arrows or objects thrown by defenders on walls).
[edit] Parma
[edit] Helmets
Roman helmets varied greatly in form. One of the earliest types was the Montefortino helmet used by the Republic armies up to the first century BC. This was replced directly by the Coolus helmet, which "raised the neck peak to eye level and set a sturdy frontal peak to the brow of the helmet"[5].
[edit] Other
[edit] Tunic
The basic garment worn under the armour by all soldiers in the Republic and early Empire. Normally made of wool. The tunic originally worn by the Roman legionary consisted simply of a long piece of rectangular cloth sewed to an identical piece, with holes for the arms and head simply left unsewn. Later, it became fashionable for tunics to be produced with sleeves, and worn with braccae
[edit] Balteus
The balteus is a sword belt
[edit] Braccae
Braccae is the Latin term for trousers of wool
[edit] Cloak
There were two types of cloak in use, the sagum and the paenula. Both were made from wool, which insulated and also contained natural oil to repel water. It was fastened by fibulae
[edit] Sandals
[edit] Buccina
A brass instrument used in the ancient Roman army.
[edit] Focale
The focale was a scarf worn by the Roman legionary to protect the neck from chafing caused by constant contact with the soldier's armor (typically lorica hamata or lorica segmentata) and helmet.
[edit] sudes
Stakes for construction of camps
[edit] Sarcina
Military pack carried by legionaries
[edit] Loculus
Loculus is a Latin word literally meaning little place and was used to indicate a satchel
[edit] Cooking pot
A cooking pot
[edit] Waterkskin
Roman camps would typically be built over streams or similar to supply water both for drinking and also to provide running water for the communal latrines, but each soldier would have to carry his water for the day's march between each camp on him in a waterskin.
[edit] Food
Each legionary would carry some of his food. Although a Roman army on the move would typically have a baggage train of mules or similar to carry supplies such as food, after the Marian reforms legioanries were required to carry about 14 days worth of basic food supplies with them.
[edit] Shovel
Carried by legionaries to construct fortifications and dig latrines etc. Each legionary would typically carry either a shovel for digging, or a wicker basket for hauling earth, but not both.
[edit] Patera
A mess tin
[edit] Tribulus
A tribulus (caltrop) is a weapon made up of four (or more) sharp nails or spines arranged in such a manner that one of them always points upward from a stable base (for example, a tetrahedron). Caltrops serve to slow down the advance of horses, war elephants, and human troops. It was said to be particularly effective against the soft feet of camels[6].
The late Roman writer Vegetius, in his work De Re Militari, wrote:
- The scythed chariots used in war by Antiochus and Mithridates at first terrified the Romans, but they afterwards made a jest of them. As a chariot of this sort does not always meet with plain and level ground, the least obstruction stops it. And if one of the horses be either killed or wounded, it falls into the enemy's hands. The Roman soldiers rendered them useless chiefly by the following contrivance: at the instant the engagement began, they strewed the field of battle with caltrops, and the horses that drew the chariots, running full speed on them, were infallibly destroyed. A caltrop is a machine composed of four spikes or points arranged so that in whatever manner it is thrown on the ground, it rests on three and presents the fourth upright.[7]
[edit] See also
[edit] Notes
- ^ In Luttwack, E., The Grand Strategy of the Roman Empire, JHUP, 1979, Luttwack states that "ROman weapons, far from being universally more advanced, were frequenetly inferior to those used by... enemies
- ^ The Carthaginians were based in Spain at the time, where they ruled. The Romans obtained the province of Hispania from them after their defeat.
- ^ Santosuosso, A., Soldiers, Emperors and Civilians inthe Roman Empire, Westview, 2001, p.130
- ^ Santosuosso, A., Soldiers, Emperors and Civilians inthe Roman Empire, Westview, 2001, p.131
- ^ Santosuosso, A., Soldiers, Emperors and Civilians inthe Roman Empire, Westview, 2001, p.131
- ^ Rawlinson, George. The Seven Great Monarchies Of The Ancient Eastern World, Vol 6. (of 7): Parthia.
- ^ “ARMED CHARIOTS AND ELEPHANTS”, The Military Institutions of the Romans Book III: Dispositions for Action.
[edit] References
- Luttwack, E., The Grand Strategy f the Roman Empire, JHUP, 1979
