Renga
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Renga (連歌?) is a form of Japanese collaborative poetry. A renga consists of at least two ku (句?) or stanzas, often many more. The opening stanza of the renga chain, called the hokku (発句?), later became the basis for the modern haiku style of poetry.
As the renga was a popular poetry form for many centuries, there are many sayings that find their roots in renga traditions. The Japanese phrase ageku no hate (挙句の果て?) means "at last", as the ageku is the last stanza of a renga.
The most favored form of renga in the Edo period was the kasen (歌仙?), a chain consisting of 36 verses. As a rule, kasen must refer to flowers (usually cherry blossoms) twice, and once to the moon. These references are termed hana no za (花の座? "the seat of flowers") and tsuki no za (月の座? "the seat of the moon").
By one reckoning, the earliest recorded renga appeared in the late Heian period, and was in fact a waka composed by two poets. This style is called tan-renga (短連歌? "short renga"). Other styles are called chō-renga (長連歌? "long renga"). However, Yoshitomo pointed to songs in the older Kojiki about the god Izanagi and the goddess Izanami as earlier examples.
Two of the most famous masters of renga were the Buddhist priest Sogi (1421 - 1502) and Matsuo Bashō (1644 - 1694).
In Western literature, the term "renga" has been applied to alternating accretive poetry, not necessarily in the classical Japanese form. Examples include Octavio Paz and Charles Tomlinson's sonnet-renga "Airborne", 1979, and to the work of Canadians P. K. Page and Philip Stratford, whose collaboration between 1997 and 1999 became the sonnet collection "And Once More Saw The Stars", 2001.
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[edit] History
The earliest renga recorded is in the Man'yōshū, where Otomo no Yakamochi and a Buddhist nun (尼 ama?) made and exchanged poems with mora counts of 5-7-5 and 7-7. Around the time the Shin Kokin Wakashū was published, the renga form of poetry was finally established as a distinct style. This original renga style, hyakuin renga (百韻連歌? "100-stanza linked poem), used only utakotoba, used mora counts of 5-7-5 and 7-7, and finished with two lines of 9 moras each. At this time, poets considered the use of utakotoba as the essence of creating a perfect waka and considered the use of any other words to be a deviation.
Many rules or shikimoku (式目?) were formalized in the Kamakura and Muromachi periods to prevent two different people from using similar syllables and to lay down the general rules of renga. Renga was a popular form of poetry even in the confusion of Azuchi-Momoyama period. Yet by the end of this era, the shikimoku had become so complicated and systematic that they stifled the active imagination that had been a part of the renga's appeal. During the medieval and Edo periods, renga was a part of the cultural knowledge required for high society.
In the Edo period, as more and more ordinary citizens became familiar with renga, shikimoku were greatly simplified. The number of moras was reduced to 36, and commonly spoken words as well as slang and Chinese words (漢語 kango?) were allowed. With this relaxation of the rules, renga were able to express broader humor and wit. This style of renga came to be called haikai no renga (俳諧の連歌? "comical linked poem") or simply haikai (俳諧?), and Matsuo Bashō is known as the greatest haikai poet.
The first stanza of the renga chain, the hokku (発句?), is the forebear of the modern haiku. The haiku form was modernized in the Meiji period by the great Japanese poet and critic Masaoka Shiki. The word "haiku" is an abbreviation of the term haikai no ku (俳諧の句? "comical phrase"); this is an echo of haikai no renga.
For almost 700 years, renga was a popular form of poetry, but its popularity was greatly diminished in the Meiji period. Masaoka Shiki claimed that "(Renga is) not fit as modern literature" (「文学に非ず」). The renga's appeal of working as a group to make a complete work was not compatible with the European style of poetry where a single poet writes the entire poem.
Recently, with the rise of the internet, renga is once again becoming a popular form. People from anywhere at anytime can easily contribute to a work. There have even been special renga events where poets can contribute via their mobile phones. Live renga are being conducted increasingly in the west, particularly in the UK where artist/poets including Alec Finlay, Gavin Wade, Gerry Loose, and UK based renga master Paul Conneally explore and develop the form further.
[edit] How to write a renga
As a renga is collaborative poetry, it is important that there be enough people to participate. Three to four is the minimum number for a renga group, called an ichiza (一座?), and upward of fourteen to fifteen may be possible under an experienced sôshô (宗匠? "renga master"). For online renga collaborations, the sôshô would be the one to select a verse from among those posted or sent.
The essence of renga is in the idea of "change" (変化 henka?). Bashō described this as "newness (新み atarashimi?), and as "refraining from stepping back". The fun is in the change, the new, the different, and the interesting verses of others.
A renga starts with a hokku of 5-7-5 moras by one of the guests. This is followed by the second verse of 7-7 moras, called the waki (脇? "side"), and then by the third verse of 5-7-5 moras, called the daisan (第三? lit., "the third"). The next verse is in will be 7-7 moras, and this pattern is repeated until the desired length is achieved. The ageku is the final verse. The shikimoku should be made clear in the advance to avoid confusion, or worse yet a breakdown of the renga writing process. It is recommended to take turns (膝送り hizaokuri?) for a small ichiza so that everyone participates equally. For larger ichiza, the dashigachi (出勝ち? "the outgoing one wins") rule is recommended so the better verse would be selected.
[edit] Renga terms
These words are presented as a shikimoku and variations of rule may exist.
- hokku (発句?): The first stanza of renga with a 5-7-5 mora count. This stanza should be created done by a special guest when present, and is considered a part of the greeting in a renga gathering. It must include a kigo (季語? "seasonal word"), as well as a kireji (切字? "cutting word" - a break in the text, usually, but not always, at the end of a line). The kigo usually references the season the renga was created in. Hokku, removed from the context of renga, eventually became the haiku poetry form.
- waki (脇?): The second stanza of a renga with a 7-7 mora count. The one who helped to organize the gathering is honored with creating it.
- daisan (第三?): The third stanza of a renga with a 5-7-5 mora count. It must end with the -te form of a verb to allow the next poet greater freedom in creating the stanza.
- hiraku (平句?): Refers to all verses other than the hokku, waki, daisan, and ageku.
- ageku (挙句?): The last stanza of a renga. Care should be taken to wrap up the renga.
- kuage (句上げ?): A note made after the ageku to indicate how many ku each poet read.
- wakiokori (脇起り?): To start with the hokku of a famous poet such as Bashô and make a new waki verse to follow on from there.
- tsukeai (付合?): May also be called tsukekata (付け方?) or tsukeaji (付け味?). Refers to the mixing and matching of unlikely word combinations to spur imagination or evoke an image. One of the interesting features of renga.
- maeku (前句?): The verse in which tsukeai happens.
- uchikoshi (打越?): The verse before the maeku.
- shikimoku (式目?): A set of rules to lay out the stylistic requirements for change throughout the poem and to prevent a renga from falling apart.
- renku (連句?): Modern renga in the style of Matsuo Bashô.
- kukazu (句数?): Literally, "the number of verses". When the theme of a section is a popular topic such as "Love", "Spring", or "Fall", the renga must continue on that theme for at least two verses but not more than five verses. This theme may then be dropped with one verse on any other topic.
- sarikirai (去嫌?): A rule to prevent loops repeating the same image or a similar verse.
- rinne (輪廻?): The name for a loop where the same theme, image, or word is repeated. Term taken from Buddhism.
- kannonbiraki (観音開き?): A type of loop where the uchikoshi and tsukeku have an identical image or theme.
- haramiku (孕み句?): A stanza prepared beforehand. Should be avoided as stanzas should be created on the spot.
- asaru (求食る?): To make two stanzas in a row. Happens frequently when the dashigachi rule is used. Should be avoided to let others join.
- dashigachi (出勝ち?): A rule to use the stanza of the first poet to create one.
- hizaokuri (膝送り?): A rule whereby each poet takes a turn to make a stanza.
- renju (連衆?): The members of a renga gathering.
- ichiza (一座?): Literally, "one seating". Describes the group when the renju are seated and the renga has begun.
- sôshô (宗匠?): May also be called sabaki (捌き?). The coordinator of an ichiza, he or she is responsible for the completion of a renga. Has the authority to dismiss an improper verse. The most experienced of the renju should be the sôshô to keep the renga interesting.
- kyaku (客?): The main guest of the ichiza and responsible for creating the hokku.
- teishu (亭主?): The patron of a renga gathering, who provides the place.
- shuhitsu (執筆?): The "secretary" of the renga, as it were, who is responsible for writing down renga verses and for the proceedings of the renga.
- bunnin (文音?): Using letters (i.e. the post), telegraph, telephone, or even fax machines for making a renga. Using the internet is also considered a form of bunnin.
- ((on)): Sounds, or syllables
[edit] Resources
- Earl Miner, Japanese Linked Poetry, Princeton University Press © 1979 ISBN 0-691-06372-9 cloth ISBN 0-691-01368-3 pbk [376 pp. 6 renga] A discussion of the features, history and aesthetics of renga, plus two renga sequences with Sogi and others, three haikai sequences with Matsuo Bashō and others, and one haikai sequence with Yosa Buson and a friend.
