Presbyterian Church (USA)

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Emblem of the PC(USA)
Emblem of the PC(USA)

The Presbyterian Church (U.S.A.) or PC(USA) is a mainline Protestant Christian denomination in the United States. It is part of the Reformed family of Protestantism, descending from the branch of the Protestant Reformation begun by John Calvin. It is the largest Presbyterian denomination in the U.S. and was established by the 1983 merger of the former Presbyterian Church in the United States, a southern branch of American Presbyterianism, and the United Presbyterian Church in the United States of America, a northern branch. The unified body currently has approximately 2.4 million members, 11,100 congregations, and 14,000 ordained ministers. Denominational offices are located in Louisville, Kentucky. It is a member of the National Council of Churches.

Contents

[edit] Structure

Main article: Presbyterian church governance

[edit] Constitution

The Constitution of PC(USA) is composed of two portions: Part I, the Book of Confessions and Part II, the Book of Order. The Book of Confessions outlines the beliefs of the PC(USA) by giving the creeds to which the Church adheres. Complementing that is the Book of Order which describes the organization and functioning of the Church at all levels. The Book of Order is divided into three sections - Form of Government, The Directory For Worship, and The Rules of Discipline

[edit] Governing bodies

The Presbyterian Church (U.S.A) has a representative form of government, known as presbyterian polity, with four levels of government and administration, as outlined in the Book of Order. The governing bodies (as they are referred to) are as follows:

  1. Session (Congregation)
  2. Presbytery
  3. Synod
  4. General Assembly

At the congregational level, the governing body is called the session. The session is made up of the pastors of the church and all elders in active service (selected by a nominating committee and elected by the members of the church). Session meetings are moderated by a called pastor and minutes are recorded by the elected clerk. This body takes care of the guidance and direction of the ministry of the local church. The session also oversees the work of the deacons, a congregational-level group whose duty is "to minister to those who are in need, to the sick, to the friendless, and to any who may be in distress both within and beyond the community of faith." In some churches, the responsibilities of the deacons are taken care of by the session, so there is no board of deacons in the church. In some states, churches are legally incorporated and members or elders of the church serve as trustees of the corporation. However, “the power and duties of such trustees shall not infringe upon the powers and duties of the Session or of the board of deacons.”

The next level is the presbytery formed by all the congregations and ministers in a geographic area together with elders selected (proportional to congregation size) from each of the congregations. A few PC(USA) synods (see below) have a non-geographical presbytery for Korean language Presbyterian congregations. There is one non-geographical presbytery, the Dakota Presbytery, for Native American congregations. The presbytery has responsibility for ordaining and installing ministers in congregations and also acts as a court of appeal from sessions in individual congregations. While the members of the congregation generally choose their own pastor, the presbytery must approve the choice and officially install the pastor in the position. Additionally, the presbytery must consent if the congregation wants to remove their pastor from office. The presbytery has authority over many affairs of its local congregations. The moderator of the presbytery, as well as a stated clerk, is elected annually. All pastors of congregations in a presbytery are members of the presbytery, not of their own congregation. Additionally, an executive presbyter is often appointed as an administrative staff member to care for the day-to-day duties of the presbytery. Presbyteries must meet at least twice a year, but they have the discretion to meet more often.

Several presbyteries join together to form a synod. Each synod contains at least three presbyteries, and its membership includes both Ministers of the Word and Sacrament (that is, pastors) and elders. The synod is an intermediate level of government between the presbytery and General Assembly levels. Although the synod has many duties, they are primarily responsible for: developing and implementing the mission of the church throughout the region, facilitating communication between presbyteries and the General Assembly, and mediating conflicts between the churches and presbyteries. Synods are required to meet at least biennially, and meetings are moderated with the help of an elected Moderator and Stated Clerk.

The General Assembly is the highest governing body of the PC(USA). Until 2004, the General Assembly met once a year; it now meets in even-numbered years. It consists of commissioners elected by presbyteries and is evenly divided between pastors and elders. There are many important responsibilities of the General Assembly. Among them, the Book of Order lists these four:

  1. to set priorities for the work of the church in keeping with the church’'s mission under Christ,
  2. to develop overall objectives for mission and a comprehensive strategy to guide the church at every level of its life,
  3. to provide the essential program functions that are appropriate for overall balance and diversity within the mission of the church, and
  4. to establish and administer national and worldwide ministries of witness, service, growth, and development.

The General Assembly elects a moderator at each assembly who chairs the rest of the sessions. A stated clerk is appointed to serve for a longer term and is responsible for the Office of the General Assembly which conducts the ecclesiastical work of the church. The Office of the General Assembly carries out most of the ecumenical functions and all of the constitutional functions at the Assembly. The General Assembly also elects a General Assembly Council (GAC) consisting of 72 ministers and elders responsible for advising the General Assembly on priorities, programs and strategies and implementing its decisions. The GAC meets three times a year.

[edit] Worship in the Presbyterian Church (U.S.A.)

The Session of the local congregation has a great deal of freedom in the style and ordering of worship in the Presbyterian Church (U.S.A.). Worship varies from congregation to congregation. The order may be very traditional and highly liturgical, or it may be very simple and informal. Many congregations offer a form of contemporary worship or emerging worship. It is very common to see churches use the Service for the Lord's Day.

The Directory of Worship in the Book of Order provides the rules for what must be, or may be included in worship. During the 20th Century, Presbyterians were offered optional use of liturgical books:

[edit] PC(USA)-affiliated seminaries, colleges and universities

The denomination maintains affiliations with 10 seminaries in the United States. These are:

Two other seminaries are related to the PC(USA) by covenant agreement: Auburn Theological Seminary in New York, NY, and Evangelical Seminary of Puerto Rico in San Juan, PR.

For more information, see the article PC(USA) seminaries.

There are numerous colleges and universities throughout the United States affiliated with PC (USA). For a complete list, see the article Association of Presbyterian Colleges and Universities.

[edit] External links

[edit] Church history

Presbyterian Church
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Presbyterian Church

[edit] Early history to 1801

Presbyterians trace their history to the sixteenth century and the Protestant Reformation. Presbyterian heritage, and much of what they believe, began with the French lawyer John Calvin (1509-1564), whose writings solidified much of the Reformed thinking that came before him.

Calvin did most of his writing from Geneva, Switzerland. From there, the Reformed movement spread to other parts of Europe. John Knox, a Scotsman who studied with Calvin in Geneva, Switzerland, took Calvin's teachings back to Scotland. Other Reformed communities developed in England, Holland and France. The Presbyterian church traces its ancestry back primarily to Scotland and England.

The early Presbyterians in America came from England, Scotland and Ireland. The first American Presbytery was organized at Philadelphia in 1706 . The first General Assembly was held in the same city in 1789. The Assembly was convened by the Rev. John Witherspoon, the only minister to sign the Declaration of Independence. This was indicative of the active support of Presbyterians for the American War of Independence.

Inspired by the evangelical preaching of George Whitefield and others, Gilbert Tennent delivered a sermon in Nottingham, Virginia in 1740 on "The Dangers of an Unconverted Ministry". In the sermon he asserted that some current Presbyterian church leaders might be academic "Pharisee-teachers" who did not have the same faith or enthusiasm as newly converted followers, a controversial view which divided the church. Together with his brother William, Tennent lead the Presbyterian part of the Great Awakening revivalist movement in America.

[edit] Church history 1801-1900

In the early years of the 1800s, the church carried on revivals and organized congregations, presbyteries, and synods wherever they went, emphasizing the connectional nature of the church. Presbyterians also helped to shape voluntary societies that encouraged educational, missionary, evangelical, and reforming work. As the church began to realize that these functions were corporate in nature and as the century proceeded, it formed its own boards and agencies to address these needs at home and abroad. Mission to Native Americans, African Americans, and populations all over the world became a hallmark of the church.

The nineteenth century was also characterized by disagreement and division over theology, governance, and reform - particularly slavery. In 1803, Barton W. Stone led a group of revivalist New Light Presbyterian ministers to form independent Springfield Presbytery which eventually became the Christian Church (Disciples of Christ). In 1810, a number of Presbyterian congregations and ministers, ejected by Kentucky Synod for their pro-revival position and their relaxation of ordination requirements in a frontier setting, formed the Cumberland Presbyterian denomination, although they never intended the split to be permanent. The century also saw the formation of the United Presbyterian Church of North America. When the country could not reconcile the issue of slavery and the federal union, the southern Presbyterians split from the original PC(USA), forming the Presbyterian Church in the Confederate States of America in 1861, which became the Presbyterian Church in the United States after the American Civil War.

[edit] Church history 1901-today

The early part of the twentieth century saw continued growth in both major sections of the church. It also saw the growth of Fundamentalist Christianity who believed in the written word of the Bible as the fundamental source of the religion as opposed to Modernist Christianity who believed that Christianity needed to be re-interpreted in light of modern scientific theories such as evolution.

This controversy reached a head in 1924 after the General Assembly adopted five "essential and necessary" pillars of Christian belief. This move toward fundamentalism and centralisation caused a backlash in the form of the Auburn Affirmation -- a document embracing modernism and "liberty of thought and teaching". The conflict continued in the 1970's over the issue of ordination of women and more recently over the issue of ordination of homosexuals.

The Presbyterian Church in the U.S.A. was joined by the majority of the Cumberland Presbyterian Church in 1906. In 1920, it absorbed the Welsh Calvinist Methodist Church. The United Presbyterian Church of North America merged with the Presbyterian Church in the U.S.A. in 1958 to form the United Presbyterian Church in the U.S.A.

This sparked a period of ecumenical activism which culminated in the development of the Confession of 1967 which was the church's first new confession of faith in three centuries. The 170th General Assembly in 1958 authorised a committee to develop a brief contemporary statement of faith. The 177th General Assembly in 1965 considered and amended the draft confession and sent a revised version for general discussion within the church. The 178th General Assembly in 1966 accepted a revised draft and sent it to presbyteries throughout the church for final ratification. As the confession was ratified by more than 90% of all presbyteries, the 178th General Assembly finally adopted it in 1967.

An attempt to reunite the United Presbyterian Church in the U.S.A. with the Presbyterian Church in the United States in the late 1950s failed when the latter church was unwilling to accept centralization. This reflected its support for local decision making and concern about central organisations having greater power. Ironically, these concerns were similar to those of the Puritans in earlier times. In the meantime, a conservative group broke away from the Presbyterian Church in the United States in 1973, mainly over the issues of women's ordination and a perceived drift toward theological liberalism. This group formed the Presbyterian Church in America (PCA).

Attempts at union between the churches (UPCUSA and PCUS) were renewed in the 1970s, culminating in the merger of the two churches to form the Presbyterian Church (USA) on June 10, 1983. A new national headquarters was established in Louisville, Kentucky in 1988 replacing the headquarters of the United Presbyterian Church in the USA in New York City and the Presbyterian Church in the United States located in Atlanta, Georgia.

[edit] Current discussions within the Church

The Presbyterian Church (U.S.A.) currently is struggling with the issue of Biblical interpretation, particularly as it relates to homosexuality. The Book of Order prohibits the ordination of those who are not faithful in marriage or chaste in singleness (G-6.0106b); several attempts have been made to remove this from the Book of Order but no attempt has received both the necessary votes at the General Assembly and approval of enough presbyteries. Gay people remain welcome as members, although officially they cannot serve as pastors, elders or deacons.

Many Presbyterian scholars, pastors, and theologians have been heavily involved in the debate over homosexuality. In 2005, a female minister in Pennsylvania came under scrutiny after performing a marriage between a lesbian couple, including infusion of Buddhist rites in the ceremony. Her case is to be heard by the church's court. Officially, the church condones clergy-performed blessing ceremonies for same sex unions, given that they do not constitute marriages.

In the General Assembly gathering of June 2006, Presbyterian voting Commissioners heightened the debate by passing an "authoriative interpretation" of their church constitution (referred to as the Book of Order). Some argued that this gave local ordaining bodies (referred to as presbyteries) the "local option" of ordaining, or not ordaining anyone based on a particular presbytery's reading of the constitutional statute (which has been in force since the 1700s). On June 20, 2006, the General Assembly voted 298 to 221 (or 57% to 43%) to approve such interpretation. The 2006 Report of the Theological Task Force on Peace, Unity, and Purity of the Church[1] attempted to find common ground. Some felt that the adoption of this report provided for a clear local option mentioned, while the Stated Clerk of the General Assembly, Clifton Kirkpatrick went on record as saying, "Our standards have not changed. The rules of the Book of Order stay in force and all ordinations are still subject to review by higher governing bodies." The authors of the report stated that it is a compromise and return to the original Presbyterian culture of local controls. The recommendation for more control by local sessions is viewed by its opposition as a method for bypassing the constitutional restrictions currently in place concerning ordination and marriage. A clear understanding of what the General Assembly voted upon in 2006 will have to wait until the ecclesiastical courts are forced to make decisions on specific cases.

At the General Assembly of 2004 an overture to consider adoption of the Belhar Confession was adopted. That confession was written by the Dutch Reformed Mission Church in South Africa in response to apartheid. In the American context it is seen to apply to the issue of sexual orientation. Adoption of the confession will be considered at the 2008 General Assembly.

Since 1980, the More Light Churches Network has united those congregations and individuals within American Presbyterianism who support full inclusion of LGBT people in the life of the church.

[edit] Recent controversies about the role of Christ in salvation

In 2000, the Reverend Dirk Ficca was invited by the Presbyterian Peacemaking Program to give the keynote address at the 2000 Presbyterian Peacemaking Conference. In his speech, entitled "Uncommon Ground: Living Faithfully in a Diverse World" he asked "Okay, well if God is at work in our lives whether we're Christian or not, what's the big deal about Jesus?" [1]

Following the controversy which ensued, the PC(USA) published a statement stating "...regardless, Rev. Ficca speaks for himself and not for the Presbyterian Church (U.S.A.)." Later, in 2003, the General Assembly declared that "There is salvation in none other than Christ." The document "Hope in the Lord Jesus Christ", adopted by the General Assembly in 2003, also states:

"No one is saved apart from God’s gracious redemption in Jesus Christ. Yet we do not presume to limit the sovereign freedom of "God our Savior, who desires everyone to be saved and to come to the knowledge of the truth" [1 Timothy 2:4]. Thus, we neither restrict the grace of God to those who profess explicit faith in Christ nor assume that all people are saved regardless of faith. Grace, love, and communion belong to God, and are not ours to determine. Paul, after a beautiful development of his thought, in Rom. 10:17 at length comes to the conclusion, "So faith comes from hearing, and hearing from the Word of God by the preaching of Christ." At the same time we recognize that God can illuminate whom and when he will, even without the external ministry, for that is in his power [The Second Helvetic Confession, 5.006, 007].'"

[edit] Property ownership

In the event of a congregational split, dissolution (closing), or dissassociation from the PC(USA), the deed to each local church's property reverts to the presbytery (similar to dioceses of the Episcopal Church and conferences of the United Methodist Church). This does not prevent individual churches from splitting or leaving the denomination, but if they do, they may not take any physical assets of that congregation with them into another denomination. Although this provision has been tested and usually upheld in courts of law, recently some of the more theologically conservative congregations have aggressively challenged it.

Despite the historically connectional structure of Presbyterianism, this issue is, surprisingly, relatively new. In the 1970s, liberal-oriented UPCUSA leaders persuaded its General Assembly to amend the Book of Order in order to add the "property trust" elements. The denomination did this largely as a preemptive measure against early conservative protests over the General Assembly's decisions to support an end to the Vietnam War, to endorse the 1973 Roe v. Wade Supreme Court decision legalizing abortion, and to make a grant to the legal defense fund of imprisoned activist Angela Davis. In particular, these issues, catalyzed by a case involving a Pittsburgh ministerial candidate who opposed the ordination of women, led several congregations in western Pennsylvania and eastern Ohio to leave in favor of the new Presbyterian Church in America in the mid-1970s.[citation needed] Later, in the 1980s, Presbyterian evangelicals added homosexuality to their list of grievances, although the denomination decided in 1978 not to ordain non-celibate gays to the ministry or eldership.

The "property trust" amendments did not take place, however, in the traditionally more conservative PCUS, whose congregations were permitted even up to the time of the 1983 reunion to defect, with consent of presbytery, without suffering any loss of assets. As the PCUS arose in the years after the Civil War from an intense period of Southern self-consciousness, the PCUS's governmental convictions may be said to have paralleled the prevailing libertarian political ideology in the states in its territory, in keeping with Southerners perceiving national governments as obtrusive and distant. Following the grace period for former PCUS churches to exit, the policy of the former UPCUSA bound the new PC(USA), as the so-called "Northern Presbyterians" were by far the majority numerically.

Resentment has built among PC(USA) conservatives (from both predecessor traditions) due to feelings that presbyteries have no right to congregational property, since national agencies and local pledges usually finance building programs, with little or no presbytery involvement. In fact, prior to World War II, most often, new churches started from the initiative of larger congregations, not presbyteries, as became the case increasingly from the 1950s onward, due to suburban mission planning and ecumenical concerns.[citation needed] Several cases in California seem to have halted the practice in that state — the courts have allowed individual churches to leave the PC(USA) and keep their own assets. In most other states, however, courts have generally deferred to the provisions in the Book of Order, permitting presbytery takeovers and/or dissolutions of some dissenting churches.

[edit] Divestment from corporations operating in Israel

Main article: PC(USA) Divestment from Israel

In June of 2004, the PC USA General Assembly met in Richmond, Virginia and adopted by a vote of 431-62 a resolution that called on the church's committee on Mission Responsibility Through Investment "to initiate a process of phased, selective divestment in multinational corporations operating in Israel." The resolution also said "the occupation . . . has proven to be at the root of evil acts committed against innocent people on both sides of the conflict." [2] The church statement at the time noted that "divestment is one of the strategies that U.S. churches used in the 1970s and 80s in a successful campaign to end apartheid in South Africa." A second resolution passed "Calling for an End to the Construction of a Wall by the State of Israel." [3] The resolution opposed to the construction of the Israeli West Bank barrier, regardless of its location, and opposed the United States government making monetary contribution to the construction. The General Assembly also adopted policies rejecting Christian Zionism and allowing the continued funding of conversionary activities aimed at Jews. Together, the resolutions caused tremendous dissent within the church and a sharp disconnect with the Jewish community. Leaders of several American Jewish groups communicated to the church their concerns about the use of economic leverages that apply specifically to companies operating in Israel[4]. A handful of critics of the divestment policy accused church leaders of anti-Semitism[5][6] [7].

In June 2006, after the Presbyterian Church (USA) General Assembly in Birmingham, both pro-Israel and pro-Palestinian groups praised the resolution. Pro-Israel groups, who had written General Assembly commissioners to express their concerns about a corporate engagement/divestment strategy focused on Israel, [8] praised the new resolution, saying that it reflected the church stepping back from a policy that singled out companies working in Israel. [9] Pro-Palestinian groups said that the church maintained the opportunity to engage and potentially divest from companies that support the Israeli occupation, because such support would be considered inappropriate according to the customary MRTI process.

[edit] Meetings with Hezbollah

Main article: Presbyterian Church (USA) Hezbollah controversy

In October of 2004 a controversy erupted when Ronald H. Stone, a former theology professor and elder in a PCUSA congregation, spoke with members of Hezbollah while he was a member of PCUSA's Advisory Committee on Social Witness Policy tour of the Middle East.

Members of the General Advisory Council later issued a letter to the Anti-Defamation League indicating that the meeting was "misguided, at best" and the comments of "Presbyterians there, as we understand them, are reprehensible." The ADL "welcomed the statement as an acceptable response … to the meeting with Hezbollah." Two members of the delegation were later fired by the General Advisory Council. [10]

[edit] Campaign for Children's Health Care

The Presbyterian Church (USA) is a partner in the Campaign for Children's Health Care, a multi-year campaign to raise awareness about the problem of uninsured children in America.

[edit] References

  1. ^ Ficca, Rev. Dirk (July 29, 2000). Uncommon Ground: Living Faithfully in a Diverse World. The Witherspoon Society.
  2. ^ Overture 04-32. On Supporting the Geneva Accord, Urging Israel and Palestine to Implement the Accord—From the Presbytery of St. Augustine. Presbyterian Church (USA).
  3. ^
  4. ^ David Elcott, Rabbi Gary Bretton-Granatoor, Ethan Felson, Mark Waldman, Mark Pelavin (November 29, 2004). Letter Regarding Divestment sent to Mainline Protestant Denominations From Leaders of Five Major Jewish Organizations. American Jewish Committee, Anti-Defamation League, Jewish Council for Public Affairs, Union for Reform Judaism, United Synagogue of Conservative Judaism.
  5. ^ Appelbaum, Diana (June 3, 2006). Presbyterians Bearing False Witness. The American Thinker. Retrieved on June 4, 2006.
  6. ^ Prager, Dennis (July 20, 2004). Presbyterian Church defames Christianity. Jewish World Review. Retrieved on June 4, 2006.
  7. ^ Hecht, Shea (September, 2005). The Presbyterian Church Boycotts Israel. The Jewish Magazine. Retrieved on June 4, 2006.
  8. ^ Rabbi Gary Bretton-Granatoor, Dr. David Elcott, Ethan Felson, Lewis Grafman, Shelley Klein, Dr. Eugene Korn, Avram Lyons, David Michaels, Sammie Moshenberg, Mark Pelavin, Dr. Carl Sheingold, Robert Zweiman (June 4, 2004). Letter from 12 National Jewish Agencies to Presbyterian Church USA General Assembly Commissioners Regarding Upcoming Decision on Phased Selective Divestment Related to Israel.
  9. ^ Ethan Felson (June 4, 2004). Statement from 15 National Agencies Welcoming Presbyterian Church USA General Assembly Return to "Customary Corporate Engagement Process".
  10. ^ Presbyterian Leaders Say Meeting with Hezbollah was "Misguided". Anti-Defamation League (October 21, 2004).

[edit] Further reading

[edit] See also

[edit] External links

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