Optical interferometry
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Optical interferometry is a technique of interferometry combining light from multiple sources in an optical instrument in order to make various precise measurements.
The technique of optical interferometry can make use of white light, of monochromatic light (e.g., a sodium lamp) or of coherent monochromatic light (laser light). The main difference between these types of light is their coherence length: for white light, only a few wavelengths, but for laser light it can be decimeters or more. In order to see interference fringes at all, the optical path lengths travelled by the interfering beams or rays must differ by less than their correlation length.
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[edit] Astronomical optical interferometry
See main article astronomical interferometer.
One of the first astronomical interferometers was built on the Mount Wilson Observatory's reflector telescope in 1920 in order to measure the diameters of stars. The red giant star Betelgeuse was among the first to have its diameter determined in this way. This method was extended to measurements using separated telescopes by Johnson, Betz and Towns (1974) in the infrared and by Labeyrie (1975) in the visible. In the late 1970's improvements in computer processing allowed for the first "fringe-tracking" interferometer, which operates fast enough to follow the blurring effects of astronomical seeing, leading to the Mk I,II and III series of interferometers. Similar techniques have now been applied at other astronomical telescope arrays, including the Keck Interferometer and the Palomar Testbed Interferometer.
In the 1980s the aperture synthesis interferometric imaging technique was extended to visible light and infrared astronomy by the Cavendish Astrophysics Group, providing the first very high resolution images of nearby stars. In 1995 this imaging technique was demonstrated on an array of separate optical telescopes for the first time, allowing a further improvement in resolution, and allowing even higher resolution imaging of stellar surfaces. The same imaging technique has now been applied at the Navy Prototype Optical Interferometer and the IOTA array. In the near future other arrays are expected to release their first interferometric images, including the ISI, VLTI, the CHARA array and the MRO interferometers.
Projects are now beginning that will use interferometers to search for extrasolar planets, either by astrometric measurements of the reciprocal motion of the star (as used by the Palomar Testbed Interferometer and the VLTI) or through the use of nulling (as will be used by the Keck Interferometer and Darwin).
A detailed description of the development of astronomical optical interferometry can be found here. Impressive results were obtained in the 1990s, with the Mark III measuring diameters of 100s of stars and many accurate stellar positions, COAST and NPOI producing many very high resolution images, and ISI measuring stars in the mid-infrared for the first time. Additional results included direct measurements of the sizes of and distances to Cepheid variable stars, and young stellar objects. At the beginning of the 21st Century, the VLTI and Keck Interferometer large-telescope arrays came into operation, and the first interferometric measurements of the brightest few extra-galactic targets were performed.
Interferometers are mostly seen by astronomers as very specialized instruments, capable of a very limited range of observations. It is often said that an interferometer achieves the effect of a telescope the size of the distance between the apertures; this is only true in the limited sense of angular resolution. The combined effects of limited aperture area and atmospheric turbulence generally limit interferometers to observations of comparatively bright stars and active galactic nuclei. However, they have proven useful for making very high precision measurements of simple stellar parameters such as size and position (astrometry) and for imaging the nearest giant stars.
For details of individual instruments, see the list of astronomical interferometers at visible and infrared wavelengths.
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| A simple two-element optical interferometer. Light from two small telescopes (shown as lenses) is combined using beam splitters at detectors 1, 2, 3 and 4. The elements creating a 1/4 wave delay in the light allow the phase and amplitude of the interference visibility to be measured, which give information about the shape of the light source. | A single large telescope with an aperture mask over it (labelled Mask), only allowing light through two small holes. The optical paths to detectors 1, 2, 3 and 4 are the same as in the left-hand figure, so this setup will give identical results. By moving the holes in the aperture mask and taking repeated measurements, images can be created using aperture synthesis which would have the same quality as would have been given by the right-hand telescope without the aperture mask. In an analogous way, the same image quality can be achieved by moving the small telescopes around in the left-hand figure - this is the basis of aperture synthesis, using widely separated small telescopes to simulate a giant telescope. |
[edit] For further information see
- John E. Baldwin and Chris A. Haniff. The application of interferometry to optical astronomical imaging. Phil. Trans. A, 360, 969-986, 2001. (download PostScript file)
- J. E. Baldwin. Ground-based interferometry - the past decade and the one to come. In Interferometry for Optical Astronomy II, volume 4838 of Proc. SPIE, page 1. 22-28 August 2002, Kona, Hawaii, SPIE Press, 2003. (download PostScript file)
- J. D. Monnier, Optical interferometry in astronomy, Reports on Progress in Physics, 66, 789-857, 2003 IoP. (download PDF file)
[edit] Books
- Basics of Interferometry, 2E by P. Hariharan Outstanding introduction to the world of optical interferometry with summaries at the beginning and end of each chapter, several appendices with essential information, and worked numerical problems / Practical details enrich understanding for readers new to this material / New chapters on white-light microscopy for medical imaging and interference with single photons(quantum optics)
See also:
[edit] The Michelson-Morley experiment
Of the uses of optical interferometry mention should be made of the Michelson-Morley experiment, a test of the Special Theory of Relativity. Light travels along two alternative, mutually perpendicular paths, and meets again to form interference fringes. If the classical theory of absolute space and time and propagation of electromagnetic waves in a world aether are correct, rotating the whole device with respect to the direction of motion of the Earth should produce a shift in the interference fringes. No such shift was seen.
[edit] Geodetic standard baseline measurements
A famous use of white light interferometry is the precise measurement of geodetic standard baselines as invented by Yrjö Väisälä. Here, the light path is split in two, and one leg is "folded" between a mirror pair 1 m apart. The other leg bounces once off a mirror 6 m away. Only if the second path is precisely 6 times the first, will fringes be seen.
Starting from a standard quartz gauge of 1 m length, it is possible to measure distances up to 864 m by repeated multiplication. Baselines thus established are used to calibrate geodetic distance measurement equipment on, leading to a metrologically traceable scale for geodetic networks measured by these instruments.
More modern geodetic applications of laser interferometry are in calibrating the divisions on levelling staffs, and in monitoring the free fall of a reflective prism within a ballistic or absolute gravimeter, allowing determination of gravity, i.e., the acceleration of free fall, directly from the physical definition at a few parts in a billion accuracy.
[edit] Holography
A special application of optical interferometry using coherent light is holography, a technique for photographically recording and re-displaying three-dimensional scenes. The technique also lends itself to monitoring small deformations.
[edit] Inertial navigation
In inertial navigation, ring laser gyroscopes are used that can detect rotation through optical interferometry of laser beams travelling around a circumference in opposite directions (Sagnac interferometer). The effect is amplified by using optic fibres wound around thousands of times.
