National myth
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
A national myth is an inspiring narrative or anecdote about a nation's past. Such myths often serve as an important national symbol and affirm a set of national values. A national myth may sometimes take the form of a 'national epic'. A considerable amount of related material is at civil religion.
A 'national myth' may be mythical in the sense of being false, but it may be mythical in other senses as well (Renan 1882). It might simply over-dramatize true incidents, omit important historical details, or add details for which there is no evidence; or it might simply be mythical in the sense that it tells a fictional story that no one takes to be true (see Abizadeh 2004). The national folklore of many nations includes a "founding myth", which may involve a struggle against colonialism or a war of independence. In some cases, the meaning of the national myth may become disputed among different parts of the population.
In older nations national myths may be spiritual in tone, and refer to stories of the nation's founding at the hands of God, gods, or other supernatural beings.
National myths serve many social and political purposes. In totalitarian dictatorships, national myths often exist only for the most shallow purposes of state-sponsored propaganda. The leader might be given, for example, a mythical supernatural life history in order to make himself seem god-like and "above" mere mortals (see also cult of personality). But national myths usually also exist in more liberal regimes, serving the purpose of inspiring civic virtue and self-sacrifice (see Miller 1995), or shoring up the power of dominant groups and legitimating their rule.
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[edit] Examples of "national myths"
[edit] Albania
Skanderbeg remains the cornerstone of Albanian national identity. His figure is clothed with such mystical powers that all national movements since the birth of Albanian nationalism have evoked Skanderbeg's deeds against the Ottomans in the fifteenth century. Legends abound of Skanderbeg prowess; his fiery steed who could jump from one mountaintop to the next, his powerful arm that could cut his enemy in half with a single blow, his exceptional cunning in luring the enemy and achieving the impossible, and especially his invincibility in battle.
[edit] Australia
At one stage the Gallipoli debacle was of great importance in forging Australian identity, but has less importance in contemporary times. ANZAC Day, which began as a commemoration of Gallipoli, is a public holiday. In 1915 almost all Anzac troops considered themselves part of a wider British people and wanted to be regarded as British, not only as Australians or New Zealanders.
The British had contributed 468,000 in the battle for Gallipoli with 33.512 killed. 7,636 missing and 78,000 wounded. The French were next most numerous in total numbers and in casualties. The Anzacs lost 8,000 men in Gallipoli and a further 18,000 were wounded.
[edit] Britain
The legend of King Arthur (the Arthurian romance) is important in the mythology of Great Britain. He is the central character in the cycle of legends known as the Matter of Britain.
[edit] Canada
The "loyalist migration" of Americans loyal to the United Kingdom from the United States to Canada following the American Revolution, has long been a national founding-myth of Canada. The story is used to suggest that Canadians are fundamentally more Toryist than citizens of the United States, that is, more in tune with such values as monarchism, Anglicanism, and hierarchy. In recent years, however, these values have largely fallen out of fashion, and as a result the story of the loyalist migration is now used more to justify the event that started the formation of modern Canada, rather than the motivations for it.
The War of 1812 is the subject of another national myth in which Canada defines itself in opposition to the United States. Some Canadians claim that Canada won the war, and the comment that "Canadians burnt down the White House" may be used by self-proclaimed Canadian patriots to mock the US. This particular story is historically questionable, since at the time, 'Canada' was little more than a collection of disunited British colonies with no self-governance, and the forces that burned the White House were British colonial troops.
The 20th Century war poem In Flanders' Fields has achieved legendary status in contemporary Canada.
[edit] China
In both mainland China and Taiwan, one of the most important parts of Chinese nationalism is the invention of gunpowder, paper making, printing and the compass. The Wuchang Uprising and the creation of the Republic of China under Sun Yat-sen also forms an important part of modern Chinese nationalism.
Within the People's Republic of China, the Long March is another such event. In Taiwan, the 228 Incident has also become part of the national folklore.
Other prominent stories of Chinese nationalist ideology include the Yellow Emperor as the ancestor of all Chinese, the idea that all Chinese are the 'sons of the dragon', the concept of "5,000 years of Chinese history", and the ideology of the Zhonghua Minzu(Chinese nation).
[edit] England
England's Sir Francis Drake remains a national hero for his attacks on the Spanish Armada. Despite his death during a failed raid, Drake remains a legendary figure who circumnavigated the globe, destroyed dozens of Spanish warships, and (apocryphally) was the secret lover of Queen Elizabeth. His jaunty, daring attitude in the face of overwhelming opposition remains a symbol of pride for the English nation.
[edit] Ethiopia
According to legend, the first emperor of Ethiopia, Menelik I, was the son of the Biblical King Solomon and Makeda, the Queen of Sheba.
[edit] Finland
The Kalevala is an epic poem which Elias Lönnrot in the 19th century said that he had compiled from Finnish folk sources. It is commonly called the Finnish national epic.
[edit] France
Schoolchildren in France were long taught to trace their ancestry to the Gauls. Vercingétorix is a national hero, whose defeat with grandeur is to be contrasted with the treacherous Julius Caesar. The popular cartoon and comic book character Asterix is a Gaul who resists Roman rule.
After the conquest of Soissons in 486, a soldier is said to have broken a vase to deny it to Clovis I. Years later, while reviewing the troops, Clovis broke the soldier's skull, admonishing the others to "Remember the Soissons vase." That kings never forget, or are always right, may be taken as lessons.
The chansons de geste relating to the Matter of France dealt with Charlemagne and his paladins, Roland (of The Song of Roland) and Oliver. Originally, the Matter of France focused on the conflict between the Franks and Saracens or Moors during the period of Charles Martel and Charlemagne.
At one time the execution of King Louis was likewise a national myth which played up the triumph of the common people over the out-of-touch aristocracy, exemplified by Queen Antoinette's statement (actually a misquote) of "Let them eat cake" when she was told the people had no bread. The French Revolution gave rise to the belief that France had a special role to carry its universal values to the world (the mission civilisatrice), which was used to justify the Napoleonic Wars and France's overseas colonial empire.
[edit] Germany
In the Battle of Teutoburg Forest of the year 9, united Germanic tribes led by Arminius defeated three Roman Legions, preventing Germany from becoming a Roman province. The historical facts were only recorded by Romans, but oral reports, in which the battle developed into a description of "slaying the dragon", might have developed into the Nibelungensaga. Written down as the Nibelungenlied in the 12th century, it connects old Norse mythology with recounts of actual history of the 5th/6th century plus contemporary events. Arminius, called Hermann by Martin Luther when the Roman records were rediscovered, became a popular figure in the 19th century. At that time, the fairy tales collected by the Brothers Grimm were important in developing a romantic conception of a folk-based German nation at a time when "Germany" was nothing more than a geographic expression comprising dozens of small states, with real princes and princesses in abundance. In collecting these traditional stories from among the people, the brothers were partially motivated by a desire to help create a German identity.
[edit] India
The Kathas (stories) of Mahābhārata and Rāmāyaṇa are of immense religious and philosophical importance in India. These two epics are traditionally called Itihāsas (Sanskrit, literally, history). The Purāṇas (Sanskrit, literally, ancient) also form a profound literary base for several traditions and beliefs of Hindus. While the Vedas, which form the source texts of Hinduism, are mostly seen as sources of elaborate rituals and metaphysics, the Itihasas together with the Puranas, being some of the most ancient writings in the world, form the major basis for the Hindu religion today.
From the Ramayana, known as the "Ādikāvya" (the first poem), the figure of Rama is venerated all over India as the embodiment of Dharma, virtue and respect. He is thus called the "Maryāda puruṣottama" (the ultimate man of respect). His wife Sita is similarly held as the embodiment of chastity and womanhood. Hanuman, the vanara servant of Rama, is held to be the model bhakta (devotee). Similarly, the Mahabharata and the Puranas provide several stories that are cherished and emulated all over India.
From later times, the Maratha king Shivaji is widely held as a symbol of valour and defiance against tyranny all over India, especially in Maharashtra. Subash Chandra Bose, Mahatma Gandhi, Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel and other participants in the Indian freedom struggle are also taught to school children as characters worthy of emulation.
[edit] Iran
Persian heros from Shahnama such as Rustam (symbol of power), Kaveh (symbol of fighting the tyranny and Arash (symbol of defending the country) play a vivid role in the consciousness of today's Iranians.
The Zoroastrian story about the colour of fire giving people joy is expressed in popular expressions each year during the Persian Fire Festival (Chaharshanbe Suri).
Mythological objects such as The Cup of Jamshid (Jaam-e Jam) and other mythical figures from the Persian mythology such as Shahrzad (the story-teller), Peri, Anahita, Mithra and Homa are universally known in Iran and are used for naming people, institutions, companies etc.
[edit] Israel
The history of the Jewish people and their nation "Israel" (referring both to the modern state of Israel and the Jewish diaspora interchangeably) is recorded in the Old Testament of the Bible. The modern state of Israel was founded based on Zionists — both Jewish and Christian — who believed that the Old Testament foretold and justified the establishment of a Jewish state in the Middle East and the expulsion of the Palestinian population who has inhabited the area since the Islamic conquest.
[edit] Japan
The legendary founder and first emperor of Japan was Emperor Jimmu, a lineal descendant of the goddess Amaterasu. This genealogy was used to justify the rule of the Imperial house.
[edit] Korea
According to myth, a tiger and a bear living in a cave prayed to the god of the sky, Hwanin, to become human. He ordered them to remain out of sunlight for 100 days and to eat only 20 cloves of garlic and mugwort. The tiger left, but the bear was transformed into a woman; now alone, she prayed for a companion, and Hwanin took her for his own wife. Their child, Dangun, became the first king of Korea, by tradition on October 3, 2333 BC.
The "founding myth" was revived several times in history to encourage Korean nationalism, and is taught in South Korean schools as a lesson of reverence, patience, and perseverance. The name Dangun itself is used colloquially to express satisfaction with excellence or rightness.
[edit] North Korea
The Democratic People's Republic of Korea is perhaps the most thoroughly propagandized populace in the modern world, with the national identity intrinsically tied to the extensive personality cults of President Kim Jong-il and his father, the "Great Leader" Kim Il-sung. Many elements of their lives and of national history have been rewritten to exalt them and to conform to and support the ideology of juche.
Kim Il-sung is commemorated as a leading commander of the independence movement against Japan. Over the years, his early life was attributed greater and greater hardship, and his abilities increased commensurately to the nearly supernatural. He is for instance said to have participated in 100,000 battles against the Japanese in 15 years. His ancestors were refashioned into heroic revolutionary fighters.
Since at least 1982 Kim Jong-il is said to have been born in an army camp on the sacred Baitou Mountain, amidst thunderstorms and rainbows (even though it was winter). It links him to the guerilla movement against the Japanese occupation and provides a spiritual foundation for his rule. He is then said to have graduated from the elite Namsan School in Pyongyang, and to have served as a construction and factory worker—so inspirationally in the latter to have sparked a mass movement, the "Model Machine Movement of Loyalty for Emulating Lathe No. 26." [1]
[edit] Mexico
The appearance of Our Lady of Guadalupe to the Aztec convert Juan Diego Cuauhtlatoatzin underpins Roman Catholicism in Mexico and to some extent all of Latin America. That the Virgin Mary appeared to a native, and the image on his apron represents her as olive-skinned, represents the accessibility of the Church to the indigenous peoples. Various indigenous advocates in Mexico have adopted the Lady as a symbol.
[edit] Portugal
There are quite a few myths surrounding the first recognized king of Portugal Dom Afonso Henriques, and his followers. Amongst them are the stories concerning Dom Egas Moniz's willingness to sacrifice himself and his family to the king of Leon because of Afonso's rebellion; Martim Moniz's sacrifice during the conquest of Lisbon from the Moors, and Afonso's own fights with his mother, Dona Teresa, self-styled queen of Portugal.
The Lusiads by Luís de Camões is an epic poem often regarded as Portugal's "national epic". In it, Camões presents the Portuguese people as descendants from Lusus, companion of Dionysus and mythical founder of Lusitania, and loosely describes the country's history until the mid 16th century, focussing mainly on Portuguese discoveries from the 14th to the 17th centuries. Camões goes further, by suggesting that the Portuguese nation might be the offspring of Odysseus (mythical founder of Lisbon, or Olissipo).
[edit] Scotland
According to legend, the Scots are descended from an Egyptian princess named Scoti.
Some Kings of Scotland have achieved legendary status. Cináed I (Kenneth Mac Alpine), who is thought of as the first true king of Scotland, uniting the Pictish kigdoms and Goidelic Dál Riata. Robert I (Robert the Bruce), notable in the traditional story of his being inspired by a spider while hiding in a cave before fighting a guerrilla war against English occupation.
[edit] Serbia
The 1389 Battle of Kosovo was a defining event in Serbian history and identity, although the historical record is sparse. A Serbian-led Christian army was defeated by the Ottoman Empire through treachery, but not before Miloš Obilić assassinated the sultan Murad I, sacrificing himself to oppose tyranny and defend his people.
[edit] Switzerland
One of the most celebrated national myths of any country is that of William Tell, the legendary Swiss hero who defied the Austrians, leading to rebellion and independence for Switzerland. The historical authenticity of a person named Tell has been disputed. The related Rütli-Schwur describes the legendary oath that markes the beginning of the Old Swiss Confederacy.
[edit] United States
The travails of the Pilgrims aboard the Mayflower are often retold to underscore quintessential American values such as religious freedom (the voyagers seen as fleeing religious persecution) and industriousness (required to survive the harsh New England winter). In actuality, the Puritans were outnumbered by unaffiliated settlers and servants, and Plymouth Colony was no model of religious tolerance. In fact the Pilgrims were fleeing the openness and tolerance of the Netherlands, the first country they fled to, so they and their children would not be morally corrupted.
Pocahontas is said to have saved the life of John Smith from her father Powhatan, and later adopted European customs. The tale was later used to justify various indignities imposed by white settlers upon culturally inferior Native Americans. Nearly all accounts, however—including Smith's—are at best highly romanticized.
The American Revolution is the source of many national myths, such as the legendary ride of Paul Revere, or Nathan Hale's purported last words ("...My only regret is that I have one life to lose for my country"). These legends illustrate the virtues of bravery and vigilance, considered essential to the United States.
The person of George Washington is particularly idealized as the "father of the country." Parson Weems invented some of the tales about Washington's life, including the story in which a young Washington admits to cutting down a cherry tree with a hatchet, oft-repeated to children to underscore the virtue of truthfulness.
The numerous and complex causes of the American Civil War are romantically simplified as either a war to "free the slaves" or (chiefly in the South) to defend agrarian tradition and independence against homogenizing industrial society. Pickett's Charge during the Battle of Gettysburg is sometimes given as the moment the Confederacy had lost the war, though the CSA survived for almost two additional years.
The settlement of the American West has also been a source of many national myths, which glorify the frontier virtues of rugged individualism and self-reliance. After the closing of the frontier, stories by Horatio Alger and others depicted diligence, honesty and pluck as the chief qualities required for upward social mobility in the industrial age—not to mention ingraining the view of the nation as a true meritocracy. A quote in the 1962 movie The Man Who Shot Liberty Valance is made about the use of Wild West stories in the US: "This is the west, sir. When the legend becomes fact, print the legend."
Rosa Parks' resistance to compulsory racial segregation in the Montgomery, Alabama bus system is celebrated as the spark of the American Civil Rights Movement.
[edit] References
- Abizadeh, Arash. 2004. "Historical Truth, National Myths, and Liberal Democracy." The Journal of Political Philosophy 12.3: 291-313.
- Miller, David. 1995. On Nationality. Oxford: Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-19-828047-5.
- Renan, Ernest. 1882. "Qu'est-ce qu'une nation?"
