Narratology

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Narratology, a term coined by Professor Edward Maloney from Georgetown University, is the theory and study of narrative and narrative structure and ([1]) the way they affect our perception. The term was coined in French, narratologie, by Tzvetan Todorov in his 1969 Grammaire du Décaméron (Prince [2]). Its objects of study are all kinds of narrated texts - both fiction (literature, poetry, etc.) and non-fiction (historiography, academic publishing, etc.), - as well as the dramatic structures, plot devices, characterization, settings, genres, and literary techniques. Usually, the term "narratology" is used in connection with fictional texts, which doesn't imply that non-fictional texts or other forms of fiction (theater, films, electronic entertainment, etc.) are not included in the studies' field.

Important subtopics of narratology are the studies of continuity, verisimilitude, and suspension of disbelief (see also Fourth wall).

Contents

[edit] Forms of narrative

Any story can be split into several parts, according to the will of the author. This is often done for marketing purposes, but may as well be a literary device used to create a specific structure of the narrative. Common forms are:

  • Single work (e.g. a novel, a short story, a poem, a film, a theater or radio play) is by far the most common used technique, when a story is told in one piece, without splitting it up.
  • Duology or dilogy is a set of two works. It is less common than single stories and trilogies.
  • Trilogy is a set of three works. Trilogy is arguably the second most popular narrative form.
  • Tetralogy is a set of four works. (This is sometimes incorrectly referred to as a Quadrilogy, particularly in film; it can, borrowing musical terminology, also be referred to as a quartet).
  • Pentalogy or quintology is a set of five works.
  • Serial is a narrative form that consists of a potentially unlimited number of works. This form is rather uncommon in literature (except historically, for example Charles Dickens famously published his, and other authors' works, in serial format) but is often used in television and comics. It is also known as episodic media.

Within stories split into multiple parts, following terms are commonly used:

  • Sequel is a story that succeeds a previously published one, being set in the same fictional universe but later in time. A sequel usually continues the original storyline.
    • Spiritual sequel is a story that indirectly succeeds a previously published one. Often it is set in another universe, another time and features another cast of characters, but expresses the same ideas and concepts as the original work.
  • Prequel is a story that happens in the same universe as some previously published one but earlier in time. The main function of a prequel is usually to explain the original story (which continues the storyline of the prequel itself). Prequels have to be carefully written so they do not go against things that have happened in the first book.
  • Interquel is a story chronologically set during the interval between two previously published works, being the sequel to former work and the prequel to the latter work, which was previously the sequel to the former.
  • A midquel[citation needed] or inquel[citation needed] is a story set in the same time and universe as a previously published work (rather than between two previous works). An example would be C.S. Lewis' The Horse and his Boy, which is set during the last chapter of The Lion, the Witch, and the Wardrobe.

[edit] Narrative techniques

When describing a narrative, one of the most important aspects is the point of view from which the story is told. Hence, there are two basic forms of narrative - diegesis and mimesis: the former means telling a story instead of showing a series of events, and the latter - the opposite of that. Simply put, diegesis implies that there is a personified narrator and mimesis - that a story is told by an omniscient incorporeal entity.

Another important aspect of a narrative is its syntagmatic structure or "the mode of time-awareness which listeners are placed": simple narrative, epic or lyrical. See the main article for more information.

More specific narrative techniques include:

  • False document is a form of narrative that presents a story as a record in some nonexistent document (diary, letter, video tape, etc.). This is used to create a sense of authenticity beyond the normally expected suspension of disbelief in the reader/audience, as well as sometimes, to put a certain distance between the text and its author. This technique can be applied to either an entire story or a single part of it (a story within a story).
    • Epistolary novel is a novel written in form of a series of post letters (usually, from the protagonist to his/her friend, acquaintance or relative). It is usually a subform of the false document technique.
  • Frame story is a narrative technique in which a main story is composed, at least in part, for the purpose of organizing a set of shorter stories, each of which is a story within a story. The A-Plot, thus, becomes mere a link between countless subplots, which are then the real focus of the narrative.
  • Metafiction is a kind of fiction, which self-consciously addresses the devices of fiction, which means that it deliberately denies the suspension of disbelief for itself. In order to constantly remind the reader/audience that they are reading a book or watching a movie, metafiction often employs meta-references.
  • Pastiche is a term with a double meaning. On one hand, it may describe a respectful imitation of some other author's style of narrative (as opposed to a parody). On the other, it sometimes stands for a narrative that is "cobbled together" in imitation of several original works.
  • Purple prose is a term used to describe passages or, sometimes, entire literary works, written in prose so overly extravagant, ornate or flowery as to break the flow and draw attention to itself.
  • Serial is the primary technique used in episodic media (see above). It implies that a story is divided into a number of smaller stories (episodes) but unlike a frame story, a serial may have all episodes bound together into one single A-plot.
  • Stream of consciousness is a literary technique, which seeks to describe an individual's point of view by giving the written equivalent of the character's thought processes. The first notable example of an application of this technique has been s.c. Molly Bloom's Soliloquy.

[edit] Point of view

In narratology, point of view describes the role that the narrator (see below) plays in the story.

  • First-person narrative is a point of view for which the narrator is a part of the story (a character). He or she refers to him-/herself as "I" ("we" in plural). This is a very common technique since it allows inserting more personal feelings and thoughts into the text than others. On the other hand, it is often incapable of giving an objective view on the story.
  • Second-person narrative is a point of view within which the narrator is narrating the story to another character through that character's point of view. This character (likely, a protagonist) is referred as "you". This is a rather uncommon technique mostly used in instructions and role-playing games. Examples of its usage in literature include Bright Lights, Big City by Jay McInerney and Despair by Vladimir Nabokov. Together with the first-person narrative, this technique constitutes diegesis.
  • Third person limited omniscient is a point of view such that the reader and the writer observe the situation from the outside through the senses and thoughts of a single character, although the focal character may shift throughout the course of any given narrative. This form is a combination of first-person and omniscient narrative and is therefore likely the most frequently used one in fictional texts.
  • Omniscient narrator is a point of view similar to third person limited omniscient but unlike it, an omniscient narrator shifts the focal character instantly, without any special events causing the change of the viewpoint. It is also likely to refer to other characters in third person, which means that the narrator himself usually dissolves and ceases to exist as a detectable entity (mimesis).
  • Unreliable narrator is a narrator who tells the story from his or her personal point of view but who has flaws or makes mistakes. As a result, such narrator cannot give the entire picture of the story and his or her credibility is often put in question. Generally, all unreliable narrators are telling the story from the first-person perspective.

[edit] Plot structure

The plot (also known as plotline) is the main aspect of any fictional story. It describes a series of events that happens to the characters in a described setting. Ideally, all events should follow logically from each other and be acceptable for the continuity of the story. In larger texts, there are often subplots running simultaneously with the main one.

In cinema, a plot is usually presented in the form of a screenplay.

  • A-Plot is the term used for the main plotline that binds all other ones, which doesn't necessarily mean that it is the most important one.
  • Subplot or side story is a plotline that has no direct connection to the A-Plot, but is important for understanding various aspects of the characters' personalities and the world created by the author. There are several kinds of subplots:
    • Character arc describes the events happening to a (secondary) character, which allows the reader or the audience to learn more about his or her past and background.
    • Story arc is a partial plotline that is typical for episodic storytelling media (e.g. TV series). It describes a series of events that happen to the characters over several episodes, but is not crucial for understanding the events before and after it.
    • Story within a story is a technique used to tell a story during the action of another one (e.g. a character telling an ancient legend). In cinema and TV series, this technique is known as show-within-a-show.

However elaborate and original the stories of the world may be, all of them follow some basic patterns (plots). These were summarized by Georges Polti in his 1868 book The Thirty-Six Dramatic Situations. However, the author also commented, that the number 36 is not necessary right and that his list may well be incomplete or, on contrary, too long.

Other possible plot patterns include:

[edit] Conflict

A widely accepted theory states that every story evolves around a conflict or several conflicts. These conflicts are not necessarily the ones between people or their interests but follow seven basic patterns:

Of course, these are only the refined basic patterns that may be extremely intertwined in real literature and dramaturgy.

[edit] Dramatic structure

Dramatic structure refers to the parts into which a plot of a short story, a novel, a play, a screenplay, or a narrative poem can be divided. Larger texts may contain several simultaneous plots that also follow this structure. The dramatic structure has been described by Gustav Freytag as follows:

  1. Exposition
  2. Inciting moment
  3. Rising action
  4. Climax
  5. Peripeteia (turning point)
  6. Falling action
  7. Denouement (unravelling)

[edit] Episodic media

In episodic media (TV series, comic strips, etc.), special rules for plotlines apply:

  • Episode is a short part of a serial television or radio program, which usually tells a short story either directly connected to the main plotline or being a part of a side story. If one episode is too short to tell the entire story, several of them are connected to a story arc.
  • Filler is an episode that has no connection to the ongoing storylines of the series. They are sometimes used to give some background information about the characters or the back-story, but they can also be inserted to increase the running time, which is generally frowned upon.
  • Clip show is a filler episode that doesn't have its own storyline but rather consists of many flashbacks on the previous episodes. Such practice saves the producers' money but is generally frowned upon by the audience since it usually doesn't bring anything new to the series. However, clip shows are still quite often used in sitcoms and anime.

[edit] Plot devices

A plot device is an object, a character or a concept introduced into the story by the author to advance its plot. A literary technique is a technique that allows the author to introduce the necessary plot device into the story. These two terms are often (incorrectly) used to describe the same thing.

  • Plot twist is a very broad term used to describe any unexpected turn of the story that gives a new view on its entire topic. If a plot twist happens at the end of the story, it is called a twist ending (see below).
  • Flashing arrow is a technique used to focus the audience's or the reader's (but not the characters') attention on an object or a location that will be important later in the story. It can be nearly everything - from an unusual camera shot to a changing background music - as long as it stays peripheral (see also Foreshadowing and Flashforward).
  • Red herring is a plot device that distracts the reader's or the audience's attention from the plot twists that are really important for the story. This is often done on purpose to maintain tension and uncertainty.
  • Deathtrap is a popular plot device that the main villain of the story places in the way of the protagonist in order to kill him (her) and satisfy his own ultimately sadistic desires. A deathtrap is often followed by a typical villain speech and, possibly, a deus ex machina ending.
  • Comic book death is a technique commonly used in comic books, when a major character (see below) is killed (or otherwise disappears "for forever") but appears later on. Because of its previous frequent use, nowadays it is seen as something negative.
  • Dark and stormy night is a cliché-like opening of horror films and other genre media. It usually includes darkness, violent lightning and a general mood of solitude.

Less common techniques include:

  • Meta-reference is where the characters display an awareness that they are in a film, television show or book. This is often (but not necessarily) used to breach the fourth wall and create a comic effect. If unintentional, this technique is referred as "breaking character".
  • Reverse chronology is a rare technique when the story is told in the reverse order - i.e. the finale at the beginning and the beginning at the end. A somewhat more popular technique is to tell a story in a non-chronological (though not the reverse) order.

[edit] Items

Some items and objects in the story may have a special significance for the plot. These can be divided into several categories:

  • Chekhov's gun is an item that is introduced early in the story and plays a crucial role later on. E.g. if a rifle is shown on stage in the first act of a play, in the second or third one, a character will have to fire it.
  • MacGuffin is an item of utter importance that advances the story, motivates its characters and stirs audience interest while its nature is never quite explained to the audience or the reader. A similar term is "unexposed content".
  • Plot coupon is an object whose possession or use is crucial for resolving the conflict and completing the story. Commonly, it is a supernatural artifact or a superweapon, usually, divided into several parts and scattered all over the world. Locating these parts is often considered a perfect main quest for computer and video games.
    • Plot voucher is an object similar to both plot coupon and Chekhov's gun: it is usually presented to the protagonist at the beginning of the story and plays an important role in the resolving of the conflict, sometimes resulting in a deus ex machina ending.

[edit] Visions

To explain character's motives or certain plot twists, an author may allow the characters to share visions of the past or, less commonly, the future with the reader or the audience. These techniques are difficult to realize in a theater due to its technical limitations (though there are exceptions, see Death of a Salesman), but are commonly used in cinema and literature.

  • Dream sequence is a series of dreams a character sees which allow him or her to see things that are about to happen, happening at the same time in some other place or have already happened. Dream sequences are among the most commonly used plot devices.
  • Flashback is a literary technique that takes the narrative back in time from the point the story has reached. Flashbacks are usually presented as characters' memories and are used to explain their backgrounds and the back-story.
  • Racconto is very much like a flashback but is usually somewhat longer and more gradual.
  • Flashforward is the opposite of a flashback - taking the narrative forward in time from the point the story has reached. It is used less often than its counterpart and mostly in sci-fi stories to underline their futuristic structure.
  • Foreshadowing is a premonition much like a flashforward, but not as explicit. Instead of showing the future, it only hints at it.
  • Had I but known is a form of foreshadowing describing the consequences of a mistake a character is about to make.

[edit] Finales

Although each story is supposed to be different, there are some standard patterns that its finale may follow:

  • Cliffhanger is an abrupt finale that doesn't really complete the plot and often leaves the main characters in a precarious or difficult situation. Such endings usually hint at a following sequel or are simply there because an author for some reasons couldn't complete his or her story.
  • Twist ending is an unexpected finale that gives an entirely new vision on the entire plot. It is a powerful technique but also dangerous for it can easily confuse and repel the audience or the reader.
  • Happy ending is a finale when everything ends in the best way for the "good" characters (the hero and the heroine marry, the justice prevails, lost children find their parents, etc.) while all the "bad" villains are punished or killed. Happy ending is very often considered a cliché by the critics.
    • Poetic justice is a type of a happy ending when the virtue is ultimately rewarded and the vice - punished.
  • Deus ex machina is a rather illogical finale when a new, unexpected factor (e.g. a god, deus) appears on stage and solves the seemingly hopeless situation. This allows the author to end his or her story the way he or she wanted it to end but doesn't follow the logic and continuity of the story, often challenging the suspension of disbelief in effect.

[edit] Characters

The characters are distinctive personalities who are involved in the events described by the story. One usually differentiates between major (primary) characters and minor (secondary) characters. The former are the heroes of the story around whom the entire plotline evolves while the latter have supporting roles whose function is to provide the main characters with information, material goods, services or whatever they may need in order to advance the plot.

The process of creating a character is called characterization. Characterization is of crucial importance for all major characters, since they must possess a memorable and complex personality to appear interesting and appealing (or repulsive, if it is an antagonist). However, since it is impossible to describe all aspects of a character's personality in a story without sacrificing too much of its other components, the authors usually have to follow the s.c. Iceberg Theory proclaimed by Ernest Hemingway.

Unlike the major characters, the minor ones are usually not created from scratch but rather picked from a list of the s.c. stock characters (or created by merging them together). These are mostly stereotypical simplifications of human personalities, with a few distinctive features (compared to dozens of the major characters), but considering their usual supporting roles, this is an advantage since both the author and the audience/reader don't spend much time on them anyway. There are, however, some clichés that should better be avoided.

In role-playing games, the major characters are usually referred to as player characters (PC) and the minor ones - as non-player characters (NPC).

[edit] Characterization

Every major character of a story normally has his/her own motive (motivation) that drives him/her forward and advances the story. Different motives and interests often cause conflicts between characters and thus create the inciting moment for a plot or subplot. Throughout a story, especially if it is an epic of some kind, the motives of the major characters may change, adding to the complexity of the story and their own personalities.

Another common attribute of the primary cast are the s.c. character shields - a plot device that protects them from the misfortunes perilous for minor characters. This can be presented as something paranormal (in fantasy settings), as unusual luck or skill, or simply left unexplained.

The main characters usually follow some basic guidelines:

  • Protagonist is a hero or heroine of story, whose progress towards the finale the narrative explicitly follows. The protagonist is usually blessed with all kinds of virtues and despite having many personal problems (which are eventually solved in the progress of the story), stays on the side of "good". "Good" is a very subjective term and usually describes the side the audience is supposed to sympathize with. Longer and epic stories may feature multiple protagonists at once, each with his/her own separate story.
    • Tragic hero is a type of a character (often, a protagonist) whose personality has some tragic flaw (hamartia) that prevents him from being what he wants to be and thus means constant suffering for him. Tragic heroes and heroines are usually the ones the audience/reader sympathizes with the most, once their hamartia (be it a hunchback, own ancestry, lycanthropy, etc.) is revealed. Sometimes, the antagonist can be presented as a tragic hero in order to justify his/her utter virulence. A special case of this type is a Byronic hero.
    • Anti-hero is a type of a protagonist who expresses traits that are more appropriate for an antagonist, but in the end, stands to the cause of "good" (see above). Such protagonists are more common in the contemporary fiction, since they appear more realistic than traditional righteous heroes and thus, more appealing to the audience/reader.
  • Antagonist is a hero or heroine of story who actively opposes the protagonist(s) in achieving his/her/their goals or represents an opposing force (an organization, a natural or supernatural force, etc.) in the conflict. Since the protagonist usually stands on the side of "good", the antagonist is always depicted as "evil".
    • Villain is the most stereotypical type of an antagonist, almost a stock character. He/she is usually depicted as an utterly evil person (while the reasons for this are seldom given), not caring for human life or emotion, hating the entire world and aiming to enslave or destroy it. In more elaborate cases, the villain can be depicted as a tragic hero whose actions are an act of revenge or another justified cause (e.g. protection from an even greater evil).
    • Evil twin is a type of an antagonist who is virtually identical to the protagonist, but stands on the opposing side. A conflict between "twins" is usually much more tense and difficult to resolve than usual, but is generally not very common because of its obviousness.
  • False protagonist is a character who is introduced as a protagonist at the beginning of the story but removed (normally, killed) halfway through. Another major or minor character, who was also introduced early in the narrative, then takes his/her place and completes the story. This technique is applicable only if the narrative is not very long (a film, a short story, etc.) and has only one protagonist.
  • Fictional fictional character is a character that is fictional even in the context of a fictional story. This technique can be used to give a new view on the protagonist's problems, to create a comedic effect, etc.
  • Wedge-type characters are minor characters that possess character shields, which allow them to survive mortal dangers just like the major ones, but do not ascend to their primary status. This is an unofficial term, invented after Wedge Antilles.

[edit] Stock characters

A stock character is a character that relies heavily on cultural types or stereotypes for its personality, manner of speech, and other characteristics. Stock characters are instantly recognizable to members of a given culture, therefore they are often used during the characterization of minor characters, who don't need an original personality to fulfill their main function - supporting the primary characters.

Some typical examples for stock characters are:

See the article about stock characters for more examples.

[edit] Other techniques

  • Self-insertion is a literary technique used to intentionally introduce the author into the story as a character. Self-insertion as a major character is generally frowned upon by the critics, but self-insertion as a minor one can be acceptable.
    • Mary Sue is a female character who can be seen as an idealized self-insertion by the author. Unlike conventional self-insertion or author surrogate, an introduction of a Mary Sue is mostly unintentional and she is generally an idealistic, rather than realistic view of the author him- or herself (a male version of Mary Sue is sometimes referred to as Gary Stu). See the main article for detailed explanation.
  • Audience surrogate is a character who expresses the questions and confusion of the audience or the reader. This technique frequently used in detective fiction and science fiction. An audience surrogate is not necessary a permanent role.
  • Author surrogate is a character who expresses the ideas, questions, personality and morality of the author. Often, the protagonist is an author surrogate (but not a self-insertion) but minor characters can play this role as well.
  • Narrator is an entity within a story that tells it to the reader/audience. Sometimes, it is a character within a story, sometimes - an incorporeal omniscient being. Together with the author and the audience (reader), the Narrator is an entity responsible for all kinds of the story-telling. A special type of a narrator is the so called "unreliable narrator" (see above).
  • Christ-figure is a literary technique used to insert a character into the story that is in some ways similar to Jesus Christ. This is often a sub-form of the chosen one-technique.

[edit] Continuity

Continuity is a very important aspect of any story. Per definition, it means the consistency of the characteristics of characters, plot, objects, places and events seen by the reader or the audience. To put it simpler, continuity includes everything about the universe where the story takes place - facts, history, common logic, laws of nature, etc. Ideally, these shouldn't contradict themselves.

[edit] Setting

Setting refers to the set of locations (or the entire world) where the story takes place. Sometimes, this also includes local and world history and the general laws of nature of that world.

  • Ficton is an imaginary world that serves as the setting or backdrop for a story. This term is not very common, since all more or less elaborated fictons hosting multiple stories are referred to as fictional universes. A ficton can be identical to our world (save a few details) or different from it in every aspect - depending on the wishes of the author.
  • Fictional universe is an imaginary world that serves as the setting or backdrop for one or (more commonly) multiple works of fiction. Usually, fictional universes are a prerogative of science fiction and fantasy (see also Fantasy world) genres, since any setting that only slightly differs from our can be called and seen as fictional.
    • Canon is an attribute of any fictional universe that is expanded not only by its original authors but also by the fandom. In this case, a strict definition of the true continuity or, at least, a hierarchy of continuities must be set, otherwise the expanded universe (see below) will contradict itself.
    • Expanded universe is the term to describe all the materials (including fanfiction) that were published outside the main story arcs, but were accepted as a part of the story (included into the canon).
    • Fanon is a fact or an event that was introduced by the fandom and then accepted into the canon because of its popularity among the readers/audience. A related term is fanwank.
  • Multiverse is a concept (primarily in science fiction) that implies an existence of multiple parallel fictional universes. In fiction, the characters can travel between these worlds, thus, expanding the setting and the storyline infinitely.
    • Linking room is a concept in multiverse fiction that refers to an abstract space from which any of the existing fictional universes can be accessed. Linking rooms are often depicted as infinite rooms filled with doors.
  • Back-story is the history of the world (or a part of the world) where the story takes place. A common plot device (especially in fantasy stories) is a dark secret hidden in the past whose true nature the characters are supposed to uncover. Every epic setting has its own back-story that makes it unique.
    • Incluing is a literary technique that is used to make the uncovering of the back-story less straightforward and more intriguing. Instead of telling it directly, the narrator (or the characters) constantly refers to various events, assuming that everyone knows what they are talking about. This kind of logical game often allows an inquisitive reader/viewer guess the true back-story before (or if not) it is revealed.
    • Retcon is a contraction of retroactive continuity. It is mostly used in episodic media and describes alteration of the back-story that contradicts the previously accepted vision of it. Sometimes it is used to fix continuity errors in the past.

[edit] Setting techniques

  • Fictional crossover is a popular technique when otherwise separated fictional characters, stories, settings, universes, or media meet and interact with each other. This can be used as a gimmick, a marketing tool, a joke or gag, or to play out a "what if" scenario.
    • Intercompany crossover is a fictional crossover (mostly, in episodic media) where a character (or group of characters) from one fictional universe meets a character from another.
  • Shared universe is a (sometimes metafictional) technique in which several different authors share settings and characters which appear in their respective works of fiction, often referring to events taking place in the other writers' stories. Shared universes tend to appear more frequently in fantasy and science fiction than in other genres. (See also Expanded Universe.)
    • Metaseries is a term used in fan fiction to describe series of stories, which include references to each other and some overall similar chronological or cast backdrop, but are not similar enough to be considered direct sequels. Metaseries are often set in a shared universe.
  • Floating timeline is a technique used mostly in comic books that allows the authors to abstract the timeline of their narrative from our own time, but retain (mostly non-canon) subtle references to it therein. Practically, this means that a story may appear to be set in a particular period of world history, but actually, happen at a completely different time. Such technique often causes confusion among the readers.
  • Reboot is a technique used in episodic media to discard all previous continuity in the series and start anew. Effectively, all previously known history is set to null and the series starts over from the beginning.
  • Reset button technique interrupts continuity in works of fiction. Simply put, use of a reset button device returns all characters and situations to the status quo they held before a major change of some sort was introduced. This is often used (e.g. when neither the reader nor the character know that they are, in fact, watching a dream) to let the audience/reader experience something that would otherwise damage the continuity or untimely end the story, for example, the death of a major character.

[edit] Errors and gaps

Because no storyteller is perfect, sometimes errors and inconsistencies in the continuity appear. Some of them may even be deliberate and thus presented as a plot device, but overall they are frowned upon by the audience, readers and critics.

  • Plot hole is a gap in the storyline when it goes against its own logic, contradicts itself or simply leaves unanswered questions. Plot gaps are always regarded as negative.
  • Plot dump is a technique used when a lot of information necessary for understanding the story is given at once (typically in a dialogue between characters) instead of being gradually discovered by the reader. Such dumps are often regarded as unprofessional.
  • Fanwank is an (often convoluted) explanation of continuity errors in a narrative by the audience or readers (fans). Another, less commonly used meaning is a form of fan service: the inclusion (by the author) of elements irrelevant to plot or characterization in an attempt to amuse fans of a genre (see also fanon).
  • Sunnydale Syndrome is a common challenge to the suspension of disbelief when the minor characters who surround the major ones somehow fail to notice unusual and even paranormal things going right in front of them.
  • Stormtrooper effect is a reference to the apparent incapability of minor characters (see also Redshirts) to seriously injure major ones even when having all advantages on their side. This effect is a consequence of over-using the character shields seen mostly in action movies and computer games.
  • Soap Opera Rapid Aging Syndrome is a plot device typical for soap opera TV series when young characters are artificially aged at an unnatural pace to take the place of older characters who quit the show for some reason.
  • Fonzie syndrome is phenomenon in episodic media (usually, sitcoms) when a minor character becomes the central and most popular character on the show.

[edit] Genres

Generally, a genre is a category of a particular form of art according to criteria particular to that form. In all art forms, genre boundaries are pretty vague. In narrative, the genres hierarchy is extremely complicated and hard to order by any means. For more information, see the articles about genre studies, genre fiction and literary genres.

[edit] Rhetoric

Generally, rhetoric is an art of persuasion through language, but it is also very often used in narrative - to draw the reader's attention to the text and to make the characters' conversations more realistic. Various rhetorical devices may be used in order to achieve the author's goals and make the audience/reader understand and accept the point that the author was trying to make.

[edit] External links

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