Muhammad as a diplomat

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Imprint of seal stamped on letters attributed to Muhammad. Reads "Muhammad Rasul Allah", lit. "Muhammad, messenger of Allah". According to the Muslim tradition, the seal was used by Muhammad on outgoing letters, for recipient to be able to verify the source.^[1]

Muhammad (c. 570–632) is documented as having engaged as a diplomat during his propagation of Islam and leadership over the growing Muslim community. He established a method of communication with other tribal or national leaders through letters,^[2] assigned envoys,^[1] or by visiting them personally, such as at at-Ta'if.^[3] Instances of written correspondence include letters to Heraclius, the Negus and the Chosroes. Although it is likely that Muhammad had assumed contact with other leaders within the Arabian peninsula, some have questioned whether letters had been sent beyond these boundaries.^[4]

When Muhammad arrived in Medina in 622, local tribes, mainly the Aws and Khazraj, had been feuding for several decades.^[5] Muhammad addressed this by establishing the Constitution of Medina: a document which regulated interactions between the different factions, to which the respective parties agreed. This was a different role for him, as he had remained only a religious figure during his time in Mecca. The result was the eventual formation of a united community in Medina, as well as the political supremacy of Muhammad.^[6][7]

Muhammad also participated in agreements and pledges such as "Pledges of al-`Aqaba", the Treaty of Hudaybiyya, and the "Pledge under the Tree". He reportedly used a silver seal on letters sent to other notable leaders who were requested to convert to Islam.^[1][6][8]

[edit] Muslim migration to Abyssinia (615)

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Muhammad's commencement of public preaching brought him stiff opposition from the leading tribe of Mecca, the Quraish. Although Muhammad himself was safe from persecution due to protection from his uncle, Abu Talib (a leader of Banu Hashim), some of his followers were not in such a position. A number of Muslims were mistreated by the Quraish, some reportedly beaten, imprisoned, or starved.^[9] It was then, in 615, that Muhammad resolved to send fifteen Muslims to emigrate to Abyssinia to receive protection under the Christian ruler, the Negus.^[10] Emigration was a means through which some of the Muslims could escape the difficulties and persecution faced at the hands of the Quraish,^[6] although it also opened up new trading prospects.^[11]

Quraish, on hearing the attempted emigration, dispatched a group led by Amr ibn al-Aas and Abdullah ibn Abi Rabia ibn Mughira in order to pursue the fleeing Muslims. They were unsuccessful in their chase however as the Muslims had already reached safe territory, and so approached the Negus (named Ashmaha), appealing to him to return the Muslim migrants. Summoned to an audience with the Negus and his bishops as a representative of Muhammad and the Muslims, Ja'far ibn Abi Talib spoke of Muhammad's achievements and quoted Qur'anic verses related to Islam and Christianity, including some from Surah Maryam.^[12] Ja'far is quoted according to Islamic tradition as follows:

Location of Abyssinia (Kingdom of Aksum).

O king! We were plunged in the depth of ignorance and barbarism; we adored idols, we lived in unchastity, we ate the dead bodies, and we spoke abominations, we disregarded every feeling of humanity, and the duties of hospitality and neighbourhood were neglected; we knew no law but that of the strong, when Allah raised among us a man, of whose birth, truthfulness, honesty, and purity we were aware; and he called to the Oneness of Allah and taught us not to associate anything with Him. He forbade us the worship of idols; and he enjoined us to speak the truth, to be faithful to our trusts, to be merciful and to regard the rights of the neighbours and kith and kin; he forbade us to speak evil of women, or to eat the substance of orphans; he ordered us to fly from the vices, and to abstain from evil; to offer prayers, to render alms, and to observe fast. We have believed in him, we have accepted his teachings and his injunctions to worship Allah and not to associate anything with Him, and we have allowed what He has allowed, and prohibited what He has prohibited. For this reason, our people have risen against us, have persecuted us in order to make us forsake the worship of Allah and return to the worship of idols and other abominations. They have tortured and injured us, until finding no safety among them, we have come to your country, and hope you will protect us from oppression.[13][14]

The Negus, seemingly impressed, consequently allowed the migrants to stay, sending back the emissaries of Quraish.^[12] It is also thought that the Negus may have converted to Islam.^[15] The Christian subjects of the Negus were displeased with his actions, accusing him of leaving Christianity, although the Negus managed to appease them in a way which, according to Ibn Ishaq, could be described as favourable towards Islam.^[12] Having established friendly relations with the Negus, it became possible for Muhammad to send another group of migrants, such that the number of Muslims living in Abyssinia totalled around one hundred.^[10]

[edit] Journey to at-Ta'if (619)

In early June 619, Muhammad set out from Mecca to travel to the town of at-Ta'if in order to convene with its chieftains, and mainly those of Banu Thaqif (such as Abd-Ya-Layl ibn Amr).^[16] The main dialogue during this visit is thought to have been the invitation by Muhammad for them to accept Islam, while contemporary historian Montgomery Watt observes the plausibility of an additional discussion about wresting Ta'if trade routes from Meccan control.^[3] The reason for Muhammad directing his efforts towards at-Ta'if may have been due to the lack of positive response from the people of Mecca to his message until then.^[6]

Road to Ta'if in the foreground, mountains of Ta'if in the background (Saudi Arabia).

In rejection of his message, and fearing that there would be reprisals from Mecca for having hosted Muhammad, the groups involved in meeting with Muhammad began to incite townfolk to pelt him with stones.^[3] Having been beset and pursued out of at-Ta'if, the wounded Muhammad sought refuge in a nearby orchard.^[17] Resting under a grape vine, it is here that he invoked Allah, seeking comfort and protection.^[18][19]

According to Islamic tradition, Muhammad on his way back to Mecca was met by the angel Gabriel and the angels of the mountains surrounding at-Ta'if, and was told by them that if he willed, at-Ta'if would be crushed between the mountains in revenge for his mistreatment. Muhammad is said to have rejected the proposition, saying that he would pray in the hopes of succeeding generations of at-Ta'if coming to accept Islamic monotheism.^[18][20]

[edit] al-`Aqaba pledges (620—621)

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In the summer of 620 during the pilgrimage season, six men travelling from Medina came into contact with Muhammad. Having been impressed by his message and character, and thinking that he could help bring resolution to the problems being faced in Medina, five of the six men returned to Mecca the following year bringing seven others. Following their acceptance of Islam and of Muhammad as the messenger of Allah, the twelve men pledged to obey him and to stay away from a number of sinful acts. This was known as the "First Pledge of al-`Aqaba."^[21]

Following the pledge, Muhammad decided to send a Muslim "ambassador", Musab bin Umair, to Medina in order to teach people about Islam and invite them to it.^[22] Converts to Islam came from nearly all Arab tribes present in Medina, such that by June of the subsequent year there were seventy-five Muslims coming to Mecca for pilgrimage and to meet Muhammad. Meeting him secretly by night, the group made what was known as the "Second Pledge of al-`Aqaba", or the "Pledge of War".^[21] Conditions of the pledge, many of which similar to the first, included obedience to Muhammad, "enjoining good and forbidding evil" as well as responding to the call to arms when required.^[23]

Some western academics are noted to have questioned whether or not a second pledge had taken place, although Watt argues that there must have been several meetings between the pilgrims and Muhammad on which the basis of his move to Medina could be agreed upon.^[24]

[edit] Reformation of Medina (622—)

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[edit] Medinan society prior to Muslim migration

The demography of Medina before Muslim migration consisted mainly of two pagan Arab tribes; the Aws and the Khazraj; and at least three Jewish tribes: Qaynuqa, Nadir, and Qurayza.^[6] Medinan society, for perhaps decades, had been scarred by fueds between the two main Arab tribes and their sub-clans. The Jewish tribes had at times formed their own alliances with either one of the Arab tribes. The oppressive policy of the Khazraj who at the time had assumed control over Medina, forced the Jewish tribes Nadir and Qurayza into alliance with the Aws who had been significantly weakened. The culmination of this was the Battle of Bu'ath in 617, in which the Khazraj and their allies, Qaynuqa, has been soundly defeated by the coalition of Aws and its supporters.^[5]

Although formal combat between the two clans had ended, hostilities between them continued even up until Muhammad's arrival in Medina. Muhammad had been invited by some Medinans, who had been impressed by his religious preaching and apparent trustworthiness, as an arbitrator to help reduce the prevailing factional discord.^[25] Muhammad's task would thus be to form a united community out of these heterogeneous elements, not only as a religious preacher, but as a political and diplomatic leader who could help resolve the ongoing disputes.^[6]

[edit] Constitution of Medina

By 622, Muhammad had migrated to Medina with a group of his followers, having escaped the forces of Quraish. They were given shelter by members of the indigenous community known as the Ansar. After having established the first Mosque in Medina and obtaining residence with Abu Ayyub al-Ansari,^[26] he then set about the establishment of a pact known as the Constitution of Medina. This document attempted to regulate the matters of governance of the city, as well as the extent and nature of inter-community relations, and signatories to it included the Muslims, the Ansar and the various Jewish tribes of Medina.^[27]

Wikisource has original text related to this article:

Constitution of Medina

Significant clauses of the constitution included the mutual assistance of each other if one signatory were to be attacked by a third party, the resolution that the Muslims would profess their religion and the Jews theirs, as well as the appointment of Muhammad as the leader of the state.^[28] It is argued however that Muhammad's authority had not extended over the entirety of Medina at this time, such that in reality he was only the religious leader of Medina, and his political influence would only become significant after the Battle of Badr in 624.^[29] Lewis opines that Muhammad's assumption of the role of statesman was a means through which the objectives of prophethood could be achieved.^[30] The constitution, although recently signed, was soon to be rendered obsolete due to the rapidly changing conditions in Medina,^[6] with certain tribes having been accused of breaching the terms of agreement.

[edit] Impact

The signing of the constitution could be seen as indicating the formation of a united community, in ways similar to a federation of nomadic clans and tribes, as the signatories were bound together by solemn agreement. The community, however, now also had a religious basis.^[31] Extending this analogy, Watt argues that the functioning of the community resembled that of a tribe, such that it would not be incorrect to call the community a kind of "super-tribe".^[31] The signing of the constitution itself displayed a degree of diplomacy by Muhammad, as although he envisioned a society eventually based upon a religious outlook, practical consideration was needed to be inclusive instead of exclusive of the varying social elements.^[6]

Both the Aws and Khazraj had progressively converted to Islam, although the latter had been more enthusiastic than the former: at the second pledge of al-`Aqaba, the numbers of Khazraj to Aws present was 62:3; and at the Battle of Badr, 175:63.^[32] Subsequently, the hostility between the Aws and Khazraj gradually diminished and became unheard of after Muhammad's death.^[5] According to Muslim scholar al-Mubarakpuri, the 'spirit of brotherhood' as insisted by Muhammad amongst Muslims was the means through which a new society would be shaped.^[33]

The result was Muhammad's increasing influence in Medina, although he was most probably only considered a political force after the Battle of Badr, more so after the Battle of Uhud where he was clearly in political ascendency.^[34] To attain complete control over Medina, Muhammad would have to exercise considerable political, military as well as religious skills over the coming years.^[25]

[edit] Events at Hudaybiyya (628)

In March 628, Muhammad reportedly saw himself in a dream performing the Umrah (lesser pilgrimage^[35]), and so prepared to travel with his followers to Mecca in the hopes of fulfilling this vision. He set out with a group of around 1,400 pilgrims (in the traditional Ihram garb^[36]), although it was not soon until Mecca had discovered these arrangements. On hearing of the Muslims travelling to Mecca for pilgrimage, the Quraish sent out a force of 200 fighters in order to halt the approaching party. In no position to fight, Muhammad evaded the cavalry by taking a more difficult route, thereby reaching al-Hudaybiyya, just outside of Mecca.^[37]

It was at Hudaybiyya that a number of envoys went to and fro in order to negotiate with the Quraish. During the negotiations, Uthman bin al-Affan was chosen as an envoy to convene with the leaders in Mecca, on account of his high regard amongst the Quraish.^[38] On his entry into Mecca, rumours ignited that Uthman had subsequently been murdered by the Quraish. Muhammad responded by calling upon the pilgrims to make a pledge not to flee (or to stick with Muhammad, whatever decision he made) if the situation descended into war with Mecca. This pledge became known as the "Pledge of Good Pleasure" (Arabic: بيعة الرضوان , bay'at al-ridhwān) or the "Pledge under the Tree". ^[37]

The incident was mentioned in the Qur'an 48:18 as follows^[37]:

Allah's Good Pleasure was on the Believers when they swore Fealty to thee under the Tree: He knew what was in their hearts, and He sent down Tranquillity to them; and He rewarded them with a speedy Victory; (Yusuf Ali)

[edit] Treaty

Main article: Treaty of Hudaybiyya

Soon afterwards, with the rumour of Uthman's slaying proven untrue, negotiations continued and a treaty was eventually signed between the Muslims and Quraish. Conditions of the treaty included the Muslims' postponement of the lesser pilgrimage until the following year, a pact of mutual non-aggression between the parties, and a promise by Muhammad to return any member of Quraish (presumably a minor or woman) fleeing from Mecca without the permission of their parent or guardian, even if they be Muslim.^[39] Some of Muhammad's followers were upset by this agreement, as they had insisted that they should complete the pilgrimage they had set out for. Following the signing of the treaty, Muhammad and the pilgrims sacrificed the animals they had brought for it, and proceeded to return to Medina.^[37] It was only later that Muhammad's followers would realise the benefit behind this treaty.^[6] These benefits, according to Islamic historian Buhl, included the inducing of the Meccans to recognise Muhammad as an equal; a cessation of military activity posing well for the future; and gaining the admiration of Meccans who were impressed by the incorporation of the pilgrimage rituals.^[6]

The treaty was set to expire after 10 years, but was broken after only 10 months,^[37] due to a perceived violation of the treaty when a Meccan had murdered a Muslim.^[40] Other sources suggest that the violation was due to the Meccans' aiding of a client clan against a tribal ally of Muhammad.^[6] The reaction was the assembly of an army of ten thousand men by Muhammad to march unto Mecca, resulting in the Conquest of Mecca.^[40]

[edit] Correspondence with other leaders

Another rendering of the seal attributed to Muhammad.

There are instances according to Islamic tradition where Muhammad is thought to have sent letters to other heads of state during the Medinan phase of his life. Personalities, amongst others, included the Negus of Abyssinia, Heraclius (emperor of Byzantine), the Muqawqas of Egypt, the Chosroes of Persia. There has been great controversy amongst academic scholars as to their authenticity.^[41] According to Forward, academics have treated some reports with scepticism, although he argues that it is likely that Muhammad had assumed correspondence with leaders within the Arabian peninsula.^[4] R.B. Serjeant opines that the letters are forgeries and were designed to promote both the 'notion that Muhammad conceived of Islam as a universal religion and to strengthen the Islamic position against Christian polemic.' He further argues the unlikelihood of Muhammad sending such letters when he had not yet mastered Arabia.^[42][43] Irfan Shahid, professor of Arabic and Islamic literature at Georgetown University, contends that dismissing the letters sent by Muhammad as forgeries is "unjustified", pointing to recent research establishing the historicity of the letter to Heraclius as an example.^[2]

[edit] Letter to Heraclius

A letter was sent from Muhammad to the emperor of Byzantium, Heraclius, through the Muslim envoy Dihyah bin Khalifah al-Kalbi, although Shahid suggests that Heraclius may never have received it.^[2] He also advances that more positive sub-narratives surrounding the letter contain little credence. According to El-Cheikh, Arab historians and chroniclers generally did not doubt the authenticity of Heraclius' letter due to the documentation of such letters in the majority of both early and later sources.^[41] Furthermore, she notes that the formulation and the wordings of different sources are very close and the differences are ones of detail: They concern the date on which the letter was sent and its exact phrasing.^[41] Muhammad Hamidullah, an Islamic research scholar, argues for the authenticity of the letter sent to Heraclius, and in a later work reproduces what is claimed to be the original letter.^[41][44] The account as transmitted by Muslim historians reads as follows^[41]:

Purported letter sent by Muhammad to Heraclius, emperor of Byzantium

In the name of Allah the Beneficent, the Merciful (This letter is) from Muhammad the slave of Allah and His Apostle to Heraclius the ruler of Byzantine. Peace be upon him, who follows the right path. Furthermore I invite you to Islam, and if you become a Muslim you will be safe, and Allah will double your reward, and if you reject this invitation of Islam you will be committing a sin by misguiding your Arisiyin (peasants). (And I recite to you Allah's Statement:) "Say (O Muhammad): 'O people of the scripture! Come to a word common to you and us that we worship none but Allah and that we associate nothing in worship with Him, and that none of us shall take others as Lords beside Allah.' Then, if they turn away, say: 'Bear witness that we are Muslims' (those who have surrendered to Allah)." (3:64)[41][45]

Abu Sufyan, currently an adversary to Muhammad but a signatory to the recent Treaty of Hudaybiyya, was trading in Syria when he was summoned to the court of Heraclius. Asked by Heraclius about the man claiming to be a prophet, Abu Sufyan responded, speaking favorably of Muhammad's character and lineage and outlining some directives of Islam. Heraclius was seemingly impressed by what he was told of Muhammad, and felt that Muhammad's claim to prophethood was valid.^[41][45][46] Despite this incident, it seems that Heraclius was more concerned with the current rift between the various Christian churches within his empire, and as a result did not convert to Islam.^[41][47]

[edit] Deputation to Abyssinia

The letter inviting the Negus to Islam had been sent by Amr bin Omayah ad-Damari, although it is not known if the letter had been sent with Ja'far on migration to Abyssinia or at a later date following the Treaty of Hudaibiyya. According to Hamidullah, the former may be more likely.^[1] The letter reads:

In the Name of Allah the Most Beneficent, the Most Merciful. From Muhammad the Messenger of Allah to Negus, king of Abyssinia. Peace be upon him who follows true guidance. Salutations, I entertain Allah's praise, there is no god but He, the Sovereign, the Holy, the Source of peace, the Giver of peace, the Guardian of faith, the Preserver of safety. I bear witness that Jesus, the son of Mary, is the spirit of Allah and His Word which He cast into Mary, the virgin, the good, the pure, so that she conceived Jesus. Allah created him from His spirit and His breathing as He created Adam by His Hand. I call you to Allah Alone with no associate and to His obedience and to follow me and to believe in that which came to me, for I am the Messenger of Allah I invite you and your men to Allah the Glorious, the All-Mighty. I hereby bear witness that I have communicated my message and advice. I invite you to listen and accept my advice. Peace be upon him who follows true guidance.[48][49]

Having received the letter, the Negus was purported to accept Islam in a reply he wrote to Muhammad. According to Islamic tradition, the Muslims in Medina prayed the funeral prayer in absentia for the Negus on his death.^[50] It is possible that a further letter was sent to the successor of the late Negus.^[1]

[edit] Letter to Muqawqas

There has been conflict amongst scholars about the authenticity of aspects concerning the letter sent by Muhammad to Muqawqas. Some scholars such as Nöldeke consider the currently preserved copy to be a forgery, and Öhrnberg considers the whole narrative concerning the Muqawqas to be "devoid of any historical value".^[51] Muslim historians, in contrast, generally affirm the historicity of the reports. The purported text of the letter (sent by Hatib bin Abi Balta'a) according to Islamic tradition is as follows:

Purported letter sent by Muhammad to Muqawqas, preserved in the Topkapi Museum, Istanbul

In the Name of Allah, the Most Beneficent, the Most Merciful. From Muhammad slave of Allah and His Messenger to Muqawqas, vicegerent of Egypt. Peace be upon him who follows true guidance. Thereafter, I invite you to accept Islam. Therefore, if you want security, accept Islam. If you accept Islam, Allah, the Sublime, shall reward you doubly. But if you refuse to do so, you will bear the burden of the transgression of all the Copts. "Say (O Muhammad): 'O people of the scripture! Come to a word common to you and us that we worship none but Allah and that we associate nothing in worship with Him, and that none of us shall take others as Lords beside Allah.' Then, if they turn away, say: 'Bear witness that we are Muslims' (those who have surrendered to Allah)." (3:64) [52]

The Muqawqas responded by sending gifts to Muhammad, including two female slaves, Maria al-Qibtiyya and Sirin. Maria became the concubine of Muhammad,^[53] with some sources reporting that she was later freed and married. The Muqawqas is reported in Islamic tradition as having presided over the contents of the parchment and storing it in an ivory casket, although he did not convert to Islam.^[54]

[edit] Letter to Chosroes

The letter written by Muhammad addressing the Chosroes of Persia was carried by 'Abdullah bin Hudhafa as-Sahmi who, through the governor of Bahrain, delivered it to the Chosroes.^[55] The account as transmitted by Muslim historians reads:

In the name of Allah, the beneficient, the Merciful. From Muhammad, the Messenger of God, to Kisra, the great King of Persia. Peace be upon him who follows the guidance, believes in Allah and His Prophet, bears witness that there is no God but Allah and that I am the Prophet of Allah for the entire humanity so that every man alive is warned of the awe of God. Embrace Islam that you may find peace; otherwise on you shall rest the sin of the Magis.[56]

On receival, the Chosroes reportedly tore up the letter in outrage.^[57] This reaction of enmity contrasts with the responses of the other leaders, and was supposedly due to Muhammad having placed his own name before that of the Chosroes.^[55]

[edit] Other personalities

Apart from the aforementioned personalities, there are other reported instances of correspondence. Mundhir bin Sawa, the governor of Bahrain was apparently an addressee, with a letter having been delivered to him through `Al-`Ala bin al-Hadrami. Some subjects of the governor reportedly converted to Islam, whereas others did not.^[58] A similar letter was sent to Hauda bin Ali, the governor of Yamamah, who replied that he would only convert if he were given a position of authority within Muhammad's government, a proposition which Muhammad was unwilling to accept.^[58] The current ruler of Damascus, Harith ibn Abi Shamir al-Ghassani, reportedly reacted less than favourably to Muhammad's correspondence, viewing it as an insult.^[58] Jaifer and `Abd al-Jalani, two brothers belonging to the ruling Azd tribe in Oman, converted to Islam in 630 on receiving the letter sent from Muhammad through Amr ibn al-Aas.^[59]

[edit] See also

• Arabian tribes that interacted with Muhammad
• History of Islam
• Muhammad in Medina
• Sharia
• Ummah
• Itmaam-i-hujjat

[edit] Notes

[edit] References

• El-Cheikh, Nadia Maria (1999). "Muhammad and Heraclius: A Study in Legitimacy". Studia Islamica 89: 5—21.
• Forward, Martin (1998). Muhammad: A Short Biography. Oxford: Oneworld. ISBN 1851681310.
• Haykal, Muhammad Husayn (1993). The Life of Muhammad. Indianapolis: American Trust Publications. ISBN 0892591374.
• Lewis, Bernard (1984). The Jews of Islam. US: Princeton University Press. ISBN 0691054193.
• al-Mubarakpuri, Saif-ur-Rahman (2002). al-Raheeq al-Makhtoom, "The Sealed Nectar". Islamic University of Medina. Riyadh: Darussalam publishers. ISBN 1591440718.
• Muir, William (1861). The Life of Mahomet. London: Smith, Elder & Co.. OCLC 3265081.
• P.J. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C.E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel and W.P. Heinrichs (Ed.), Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. Brill Academic Publishers. ISSN 1573-3912.
• Rogerson, Barnaby (2003). The Prophet Muhammad: A Biography. UK: Little, Brown (TimeWarner books). ISBN 0316861758.
• Watt, M Montgomery (1974). Muhammad: Prophet and Statesman. United Kingdom: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0198810784.

[edit] Further reading

• Hamidullah, Muhammad (1985). Six originaux des lettres du Prophète de l'islam: étude paléographique et historique des lettres. Paris: Tougui. ISBN 273630005X.
• Watt, M Montgomery (1981). Muhammad at Medina. United Kingdom: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0195773071.
• Al-Ismail, Tahia (1998). The Life of Muhammad: his life based on the earliest sources. Ta-Ha publishers Ltd, United Kingdom. ISBN 0907461646.

[edit] External links

• Muhammad Husayn Haykal: "The Life of Muhammad"; Online version
• Letters sent by Muhammad