Modern Greek grammar

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Main article: Modern Greek

This article presents a sketch of the grammar of Standard Modern Greek, as spoken in present-day Greece and Cyprus. Standard Modern Greek grammar is basically that of Demotic Greek, but it has also assimilated certain elements of Katharevousa, the archaic, learned variety of Greek imitating Classical Greek forms, which used to be the offical language of Greece through much of the 19th and 20th centuries.

Contents 1 General characteristics 1.1 Syntax 1.2 Morphology 1.3 Characteristics of the Balkan linguistic union 2 The nominal system 2.1 Article 2.1.1 The definite article 2.1.2 The indefinite article 2.2 Nouns 2.2.1 Masculine nouns 2.2.2 Feminine nouns 2.2.3 Neuter nouns 2.3 Adjectives 2.4 Personal pronouns 3 Prepositions 4 Conjunctions 5 The verb 5.1 1st Conjugation 5.2 2nd Conjugation 5.3 Grammatical voice 5.4 Be and have 6 Notes 7 References

[edit] General characteristics

[edit] Syntax

The predominant word order in Greek is SVO (Subject-Verb-Object), but word order is quite freely variable, with VSO and other orders as frequent alternatives. Within the noun phrase, adjectives precede the noun (e.g. το μεγάλο σπίτι 'the big house'), while possessors follow it (e.g. το σπίτι μου 'my house'). The opposite order is possible as a marked alternative in both cases. Greek is a Pro-drop language, i.e. subjects are typically not overtly expressed whenever they are inferrable from context. Whereas the word order of the major elements within the clause is fairly free, certain grammatical elements form a rigidly ordered group together with the verb, to which they attach as clitics. This applies particularly to unstressed object pronouns, negation particles, the tense particle θα, and the subjunctive particle να. Likewise, possessive pronouns are enclitic to the nouns they modify.

[edit] Morphology

Greek is still a strongly inflectional language, although the richness of inflectional categories of Ancient Greek has been reduced over time. Nouns, adjectives and verbs are each divided into several inflectional classes (declination classes and conjugation classes), which have different sets of endings. In the nominals, the ancient inflectional system is well preserved, with the exception of the loss of one case, the dative, and the restructuring of several of the inflectional classes. In the verbal system, the loss of synthetic inflectional categories is somewhat greater, and several new analytic constructions have evolved instead.

[edit] Characteristics of the Balkan linguistic union

Several syntactic properties of Greek are characteristics shared with several other Balkan languages, with which Greek forms the so-called Balkan linguistic union. Among these characteristics are:

• The lack of an infinitive. In Greek, verbal complementation is typically formed with the help of finite (subjunctive) verb forms, in cases where English would use an infinitive (e.g. θέλω να πάω, literally 'I-want that I-go', i.e. 'I want to go').
• The merger of the dative and the genitive case. In Greek, indirect objects are expressed partly through genitive forms of nouns or pronouns, and partly through a periphrasis consisting of the preposition σε ('to') and the accusative.
• The use of a future construction derived from the verb 'want' (θέλω να > θα).
• A tendency to use pre-verbal clitic object pronouns redundantly, doubling an object that is also expressed elsewhere in the clause (e.g. το είδα το αυτοκίνητο, lit. 'I it-saw the car').
• One prominent feature of the Balkan linguistic union that Greek does not share is the use of a postposed definite article. The Greek article (like the Ancient Greek one) stands before the noun.

[edit] The nominal system

The Greek nominal system distinguishes two numbers (singular and plural), three genders (masculine, feminine and neuter), and four cases (nominative, genitive, accusative and vocative). As in many other Indo-European languages, the distribution of grammatical gender across nouns is largely arbitrary and need not coincide with natural sex. Case, number and gender are marked on the noun as well as on articles and adjectives modifying it. While there are four cases, there is a great degree of syncretism between case forms within most paradigms. Only one class of masculine nouns actually has four distinct forms in the four cases.

[edit] Article

There are two articles in Modern Greek, the definite and the indefinite. They are both inflected by gender, case and number. The article agrees in number, gender and case with the noun it modifies.

[edit] The definite article

Declension
	Singular			Plural
	Masculine	Feminine	Neuter	Masculine	Feminine	Neuter
Nominative	ο	η	το	οι	οι	τα
Genitive	του	της	του	των	των	των
Accusative	το[1]	τη[1]	το	τους	τις	τα
Vocative	-	-	-	-	-	-

The definite article is used more frequently in Greek than in English. It is used:

• Before nouns used in an abstract or a general sense:
  • E.g. Μου αρέσει η ελικρίνεια - I like sincerity (lit. I like the sincerity).
  • Τα κάρβουνα είναι ακριβά φέτος - coal is expensive this year (lit. the coal is expensive this year).
• Before proper names, including names of persons, placenames, and titles:
  • E.g. Ο Γιάννης θα έρθει αύριο - John will come tomorrow (lit. the John will come tomorrow).
• Before each noun in a series of nouns connected by and:
  • E.g. Ήρθαν τα βιβλία, τα περιοδικά και οι εφημερίδες που ζήτησα; - have the books, magazines and newspapers I asked for arrived? (lit. have the books, the magazines and the newspapers I asked for arrived yet?)
• Before designations of time such as the year, the week and the hour as well as before the names of the seasons, the days of the week except when they follow the verb είμαι (to be):
  • E.g. Το τρένο φεύγει στις δέκα - the train leaves at ten ('o clock) (lit. the train leaves at the ten).
  • E.g. Σήμερα είναι Δευτέρα - it is Monday today (lit. today is Monday).
• Before expressions of measure and weight, where the indefinite article would be used in English:
  • E.g. Το τυρί κοστίζει πέντε ευρώ το κιλό - the cheese costs five euros a kilo (lit. the cheese costs five euros the kilo).
• Before a noun which is also modified by a possessor following it:
  • E.g. Το σπίτι μου είναι εδώ - My house is here (lit. the house my is here).
• Before nouns modified by a demonstrative adjective. In this case, the definite article is placed between the demonstrative adjective and the noun:
  • E.g. Αυτό το κρασί είναι καλό - this wine is good (lit. this the wine is good).

[edit] The indefinite article

The indefinite article in Greek is identical with the numeral one. As in English, it exists only in the singular. Indefiniteness in plural nouns is expressed by the bare noun without an article.

	Singular
	Masculine	Feminine	Neuter
Nominative	ένας	μία	ένα
Genitive	ενός	μίας	ενός
Accusative	ένα[1]	μία	ένα
Vocative	-	-	-

The indefinite article is not used in Greek as often as in English because it specifically expresses the concept of "one". It is omitted:

• Before predicate nouns:
  • Είναι δικηγόρος - he is a lawyer (lit. is lawyer).
• Before nouns that have no specific reference:
  • Ψάχνω δουλειά - I'm looking for a job (not a specific job known to the speaker)
• In exclamations with nouns preceded with τι (what):
  • Τι καλό παιδί! - What a good boy! (lit. what good boy?)
• Before a noun preceded by σαν (like):
• Αυτό το χριστουγεννιάτικο δέντρο φαίνεται σαν αληθινό δέντρο - this Christmas tree looks like a real tree (lit. this the Christmas tree looks like real tree).
• In proverbs:
  • Σκυλί που γαυγίζει δε δαγκώνει - a dog that barks does not bite (lit. dog that barks does not bite)

[edit] Nouns

Greek nouns are inflected by case and number. There are three genders in Greek: masculine, feminine and neuter.

[edit] Masculine nouns

The table shows three of the most frequent declension classes. There are some other, minor ones. Historically, the class in -ος corresponds to the Ancient Greek o-Declension. The other classes represent a conflation of several different sources.

			Group 1: -ος/-οι φίλος 'friend'	Group 2: -ας/-ες άνδρας 'man'	Group 3: -ης/-ες χάρτης 'map'
Sg.	Nom. Gen. Acc. Voc.	ο του το(ν)	φίλος φίλου φίλο φίλε	άνδρας άνδρα άνδρα άνδρα	χάρτης χάρτη χάρτη χάρτη
Pl.	Nom. Gen. Acc. Voc.	οι των τους	φίλοι φίλων φίλους φίλοι	άνδρες ανδρών άνδρες άνδρες	χάρτες χαρτών χάρτες χάρτες

Groups 2 and 3 each have subclasses of so-called anisosyllabic nouns, where the Plural is formed with the addition of a stem extension -αδ- and -ηδ-, respectively. Examples are for Group 2a: παππάς, παππάδες ('priest'), and for Group 3a: μανάβης, μανάβηδες ('greengrocer').

[edit] Feminine nouns

Groups 1-2 in the table below (with certain sub-groups not shown) are by far the most frequent ones. They both correspond historically to the Ancient Greek a-Declension. Group 3 corresponds to Ancient Greek nouns in -ις. Its singular forms have been adapted to those of Group 2, while its plural forms have retained the ancient pattern. The ancient forms of the Genitive Singular (πόλεως) are also still sometimes found as a stylistic variant. Group 4 corresponds to the Ancient Greek feminine o-Declension and is today only found in a few words from the learned tradition. Except for Group 4, all classes have identical forms in the nominative, accusative and vocative.

			Group 1: -α/-ες ώρα 'time'	Group 2: -η/-ες εποχή 'season'	Group 3: -η/-εις πόλη 'city'	Group 4: -ος/-οι μέθοδος 'method'
Sg.	Nom. Gen. Acc. Voc.	η της τη(ν)	ώρα ώρας ώρα ώρα	εποχή εποχής εποχή εποχή	πόλη πόλης πόλη πόλη	μέθοδος μεθόδου μέθοδο μέθοδος
Pl.	Nom. Gen. Acc. Voc.	οι των τις	ώρες ωρών ώρες ώρες	εποχές εποχών εποχές εποχές	πόλεις πόλεων πόλεις πόλεις	μέθοδοι μεθόδων μεθόδους μέθοδοι

[edit] Neuter nouns

All neuter nouns have identical forms across the nominative, accusative and vocative. In the table below, Groups 1-2 are by far the most common ones; Groups 3-4 are found in words from the learned tradition.

			Group 1: -ο/-α βιβλίο 'book'	Group 2: -ι/-ια παιδί 'child'	Group 3: -μα/-ματα πρόβλημα 'problem'	Group 4: -ος/-η λάθος 'error'
Sg.	N/A/V Gen.	το του	βιβλίο βιβλίου	παιδί παιδιού	πρόβλημα προβλήματος	λάθος λάθους
Pl.	N/A/V Gen.	τα των	βιβλία βιβλίων	παιδιά παιδιών	προβλήματα προβλημάτων	λάθη λαθών

[edit] Adjectives

Adjectives agree with nouns in gender, case and number. Therefore, each adjective has a threefold declension paradigm for the three genders. Adjectives show agreement both when they are used as attributes (ο καλός φίλος, 'the good friend') and when they are used as predicates (ο φίλος είναι καλός, 'the friend is good').

The vast majority of adjectives take forms in -ος in the masculine (same as masculine Group 1 nouns above), -ο in the neuter (same as neuter Group 1 nouns above), and either -η, -α, or -ια in the feminine (same as feminine Group 1/2 nouns above). Again, there are some other, minor groups and sub-classes.

Adjectives agree with the noun in terms of its abstract gender, not in terms of the shapes of the actual endings, since these depend on the individual declension class of both the noun and the adjective. This means that the concrete endings occurring in any pair of noun and adjective may be quite different from each other, depending on the classes involved (e.g. η καλή μέθοδος 'the good method'; τα νέα λάθη 'the new errors').

The table below shows the forms for νέος, -α, -ο ('new'), καλός, -η, -ο ('good'), and γλυκός, -ιά, -ό ('sweet').

		Masc.	Fem.			Neut.
			Group 1	Group 2	Group 3
Sg.	Nom. Gen. Acc. Voc.	νέος νέου νέο νέε	νέα νέας νέα νέα	καλή καλής καλή καλή	γλυκιά γλυκιάς γλυκιά γλυκιά	νέο νέου νέο νέο
Pl.	Nom. Gen. Acc. Voc.	νέοι νέων νέους νέοι	νέες νέων νέες νέες	καλές καλών καλές καλές	γλυκές γλυκών γλυκές γλυκές	νέα νέων νέα νέα
		Analogous: καλός ... γλυκός ...				Analogous: καλό ... γλυκό ...

Minor adjective classes include the following:

• Certain adjectives, usually denoting human characteristics, whose Masculine and Feminine forms decline like nouns of the Masculine Group 3a (-ης/-ηδες) and the Feminine Group 1 (-α), while the Neuter ends in -ικο (e.g. τεμπέλης, τεμπέλα, τεμπέλικο, 'lazy').
• Some adjectives of learned origin which lack a separate form for the Feminine, using the regular -ος paradigm both for the Masculine and the Feminine gender (e.g. έγκυος, 'pregnant').
• Another class of learned origin, with Masculine/Feminine in -ης and Neuter in -ες (e.g. διεθνής, 'international').
• A small group of adjectives in -ύς, -ιά, -ύ (e.g. βαρύς, 'heavy'), and the similar but even more irregular single single πολύς, πολλή, πολύ ('much').

[edit] Personal pronouns

There are strong pronouns (stressed, free) and weak pronouns (unstressed, clitic). Nominative pronouns are always strong and are used as subjects only when special emphasis is intended, since unstressed subjects recoverable from context are not overtly expressed anyway. Genitive (possessive) pronouns are used in their weak forms as pre-verbal clitics to express indirect objects (e.g. του μίλησα, 'I talked to him'), and as a post-nominal clitic to express possession (e.g. οι φίλοι του, 'his friends'). The strong genitive forms are relatively rare and used only for special emphasis (e.g. αυτουνού οι φίλοι, 'his friends'); often they are doubled by the weak forms (e.g. αυτουνού του μίλησα, 'him I talked to'). An alternative way of giving emphasis to a possessive pronoun is propping it up with the stressed adjective δικός ('own') (e.g. οι δικοί του φίλοι, 'his friends').

Accusative pronouns exist both in a weak and a strong form. The weak form is used as a pre-verbal clitic (e.g. τον είδα, 'I saw him'); the strong form is used elsewhere in the clause (e.g. είδα αυτόν, 'I saw him'). 3rd-person pronouns have separate forms for the three genders; those of the 1st and 2nd Person do not. The weak 3rd-person forms are similar to the corresponding forms of the Definite Article. The strong 3rd-person forms function simultaneously as generic demonstratives ('this, that').

			strong			weak
			Nom.	Acc.	Gen.	Acc.	Gen.
1st Person	Sg. Pl.		εγώ εμείς	εμένα εμάς		με μας	μου μας
2nd Person	Sg. Pl.		εσύ εσείς	εσένα εσάς		σε σας	σου σας
3rd Person	Sg.	m. f. n.	αυτός αυτή αυτό	αυτό(ν) αυτή(ν) αυτό	αυτού (αυτουνού) αυτής (αυτηνής) αυτού (αυτουνού)	το(ν) τη(ν) το	του της του
	Pl.	m. f. n.	αυτοί αυτές αυτά	αυτούς αυτές αυτά	αυτών (αυτωνών) αυτών (αυτωνών) αυτών (αυτωνών)	τους τις τα	τους τους τους

Besides αυτός as a generic demonstrative, there are also the more specific spatial demonstrative pronouns τούτος, -η, -ο ('this here') and εκείνος, -η, -ο ('that there').

[edit] Prepositions

In Demotic Greek prepositions require the accusative case: από (from), για (for), με (with), μετά (after), χωρίς (without), ως (as) and σε (to, in or at). The preposition σε, when followed by a definite article, fuses with it into forms like στο (σε + το) and στη (σε + τη). Prepositions can be preceded by adverbs with which they can form new compound prepositions, e.g. πάνω σε (on), κάτω από (underneath), πλαϊ σε (beside) etc. A few prepositions that take cases other than the accusative have been borrowed into Standard Modern Greek from the learned tradition of Katharevousa (e.g. κατά της Ελλάδας 'against Greece', genitive) or live on in a fossilised form in certain fixed expressions (e.g. εν τώ μεταξύ 'in the meantime', dative).

[edit] Conjunctions

There are two types of conjunctions in Demotic Greek, co-ordinating conjunctions and subordinating conjunctions. Co-ordinating conjunctions connect sentences, clauses, phases and words of equal rank, the most common ones being: και (and), αλλά (but), ή (or), ή... ή or μήτε... μήτε (either... or), ούτε... ούτε (neither... nor). Subordinating conjunctions introduce dependent clauses, the most common ones being: όταν (when), αφού (when, since), ενώ (while), πως or ότι (that), επειδή, γιατί or διότι (because), εάν, αν, σαν or άμα (if), πριν or προτού (before), ύστερα (after), μόλις (just), καθώς or όπως (as), ώστε (so that), για να or να (in order to).

[edit] The verb

Greek verb morphology is structured around a basic 2-by-2 contrast of two aspects (imperfective and perfective), and two tenses (past and present/non-past). The aspects are expressed by two separate verb stems, while the tenses are marked mainly by different sets of endings. Of the four possible combinations, only three can be used in indicative function: the (imperfective) present, the imperfect (i.e. imperfective past) and the aorist (i.e. perfective past). All four combinations can be used in subjunctive function, where they are typically preceded by the particle να or by one of a set of subordinating conjunctions. There are also two imperatives, one for each aspect, and one invariable form, called either a gerund or a participle by different authors, which is formed from the present stem.

In addition to these basic forms, Greek also has several periphrastic verb constructions. There is a perfect, which is expressed by an inflected form of the auxiliary verb έχω ('have') and an invariant verb form derived from the perfective stem, historically a reflex of the old aorist infinitive. This occurs both as a past perfect (pluperfect) and as a present perfect.

In addition, all the basic forms can be combined with the future particle θα (historically derived from the verb θέλω, 'want'). Combined with the non-past forms, this creates an imperfective and a perfective future. Combined with the imperfective past it is used as a conditional, and with the perfective past as an inferential.

The tables below exemplify the range of forms with those of one large inflectional class of verbs, the 1st Conjugation.

[edit] 1st Conjugation

Aspect	Stem		Past	Non-Past	Imperative
Imperfective	γραφ-	1.Sg. 2.Sg. 3.Sg. 1.Pl. 2.Pl. 3.Pl.	Imperfect έγραφα έγραφες έγραφε γράφαμε γράφατε έγραφαν I used to write I was writing	Present γράφω γράφεις γράφει γράφουμε γράφετε γράφουν I write I am writing	Imperative Impf.   γράφε     γράφετε   write! (continually)
Perfective	γραψ-	1.Sg. 2.Sg. 3.Sg. 1.Pl. 2.Pl. 3.Pl.	Aorist έγραψα έγραψες έγραψε γράψαμε γράψατε έγραψαν I wrote	Subjunctive Pf. (να) γράψω (να) γράψεις (να) γράψει (να) γράψουμε (να) γράψετε (να) γράψουν that I write	Imperative Pf.   γράψε     γράψτε   write! (once)
Perfect		1.Sg. 2.Sg. 3.Sg. 1.Pl. 2.Pl. 3.Pl.	Past Perfect είχα γράψει είχες γράψει είχε γράψει είχαμε γράψει είχατε γράψει ίχαν γράψει I had written	Present Perfect έχω γράψει έχεις γράψει έχει γράψει έχουμε γράψει έχετε γράψει έχουν γράψει I have written
				Gerund/Part. γράφοντας writing

	Past	Non-Past
Impf.	θα έγραφα I would write	θα γράφω I will write (continually)
Pf.	θα έγραψα I have probably written	θα γράψω I will write (once)
Perf.	θα είχα γράψει I would have written	θα έχω γράψει I will have written

[edit] 2nd Conjugation

Below are the corresponding forms of two subtypes of another class, the 2nd Conjugation. Only the basic forms are shown here; the periphrastic combinations are formed as shown above. While the person-number endings are quite regular across all verbs within each of these classes, the formation of the two basic stems for each verb displays a lot of irregularity and can follow any of a large number of idiosyncratic patterns.

	μιλάω ('talk')			οδηγώ ('lead')
	Past	Non-Past	Imper.	Past	Non-Past	Imper.
Impf.	μιλούσα μιλούσες μιλούσε μιλούσαμε μιλούσατε μιλούσαν	μιλάω μιλάς μιλάει μιλάμε μιλάτε μιλάνε	μίλα     μιλάτε	οδηγούσα οδηγούσες οδηγούσε οδηγούσαμε οδηγούσατε οδηγούσαν	οδηγώ οδηγείς οδηγεί οδηγούμε οδηγείτε οδηγούν	οδήγα     οδηγάτε
Pf.	μίλησα μίλησες μίλησε μιλήσαμε μιλήσατε μίλησαν	(να) μιλήσω (να) μιλήσεις (να) μιλήσει (να) μιλήσουμε (να) μιλήσετε (να) μιλήσουν	μίλησε     μιλήστε	οδήγησα οδήγησες οδήγησε οδηγήσαμε οδηγήσατε οδήγησαν	(να) οδηγήσω (να) οδηγήσεις (να) οδηγήσει (να) οδηγήσουμε (να) οδηγήσετε (να) οδηγήσουν	οδήγησε     οδηγήστε
		έχω μιλήσει μιλώντας			έχω οδηγήσει οδηγώντας

[edit] Grammatical voice

Greek has a morphological contrast between two grammatical voices: active and mediopassive. The mediopassive has several functions:

• Passive function, denoting an action that is performed on the subject by another agent (e.g. σκοτώθηκε 'he was killed');
• Reflexive function, denoting an action performed by the subject on him-/herself (e.g. ξυρίστηκε 'he shaved himself');
• Reciprocal function, denoting an action performed by several subjects on each other (e.g. αγαπιούνται 'they love each other');
• Modal function, denoting the possibility of an action (e.g. τρώγεται 'it is eatable');
• Deponential function: verbs that occur only in the mediopassive and lack a corresponding active form. They often have meanings that are rendered as active in other languages: εργάζομαι 'Ι work'; κοιμάμαι 'I sleep'; δέχομαι 'I accept'. There are also many verbs that have both an active and a mediopassive form but where the mediopassive has a special function that may be rendered with a separate verb in other languages: e.g. active σηκώνω 'I raise', passive σηκώνομαι 'I get up'; active βαράω 'I strike', passive βαριέμαι 'I am bored'.

	γράφω ('write')			μιλάω ('talk')			οδηγώ ('lead')
	Past	Non-Past	Imper.	Past	Non-Past	Imper.	Past	Non-Past	Imper.
Impf.	γραφόμουν γραφόσουν γραφόταν γραφόμασταν γραφόσασταν γράφονταν	γράφομαι γράφεσαι γράφεται γραφόμαστε γράφεστε γράφονται	—     —	μιλιόμουν μιλιόσουν μιλιόταν μιλιόμασταν μιλιόσασταν μιλιούνταν	μιλιέμαι μιλιέσαι μιλιέται μιλιόμαστε μιλιόσαστε μιλιούνται	—     —	οδηγόμουν οδηγόσουν οδηγόταν οδηγόμασταν οδηγόσασταν οδηγούνταν	οδηγούμαι οδηγείσαι οδηγείται οδηγούμαστε οδηγείστε οδηγούνται	—     —
Pf.	γράφτηκα γράφτηκες γράφτηκε γραφτήκαμε γραφτήκατε γράφτηκαν	γραφτώ γραφτείς γραφτεί γραφτούμε γραφτείτε γραφτούν	γράψου     γραφτείτε	μιλήθηκα μιλήθηκες μιλήθηκε μιληθήκαμε μιληθήκατε μιλήθηκαν	μιληθώ μιληθείς μιληθεί μιληθούμε μιληθείτε μιληθούν	μιλήσου     μιληθείτε	οδηγήθηκα οδηγήθηκες οδηγήθηκε οδηγηθήκαμε οδηγηθήκατε οδηγήθηκαν	οδηγηθώ οδηγηθέις οδηγηθεί οδηγηθούμε οδηγηθείτε οδηγηθούν	οδηγήσου     οδηγηθείτε
		έχω γραφτεί			έχω μιληθεί			έχω οδηγηθεί

Alternative endings: -όσαστε instead of -είστε, όντουσαν instead of ονταν᾽᾽᾽

[edit] Be and have

The verbs είμαι ('be') and έχω ('have') are irregular and defective, as they both lack the aspectual contrast. The forms of είμαι are given below; for those of έχω see the table of the Perfect forms above.

Past	Present
ήμουν(α) ήσουν(α) ήταν(ε) ήμασταν/ήμαστε ήσασταν/ήσαστε ήταν(ε)	είμαι είσαι είναι είμαστε είστε (είσαστε) είναι

[edit] Notes

1. ^ ^{a b} When the following word begins with a plosive ([p, t, k, b, d, g]), these words take a final -ν ([n]), becoming τον, την, έναν.

[edit] References

• Hardy, D. A. and Doyle, T. A. Greek language and people, BBC Books, 1996. ISBN 0-563-16575-8
• Holton, D., Mackridge, P., and I. Philippaki-Warburton. Greek: A comprehensive grammar of the modern language. Routledge, London, 1997, ISBN 0-415-10001-1, ISBN 0-415-10002-X. A very complete modern reference, also available abridged as Greek: An Essential Grammar of the Modern Language, Routledge , London, 2003, ISBN 0-415-23209-0, ISBN 0-415-23210-4
• Μαρινέτα, Δ. and Παπαχειμώνα, Δ. Ελληνικά Τώρα, Nostos, 1992. ISBN 960-85137-0-7
• Pappageotes, G. C. and Emmanuel, P. D. Modern Greek in a nutshell, Institute for language study, Montclair, N.J. 07042, Funk & Wagnalls, New York, 1958; "Vest Pocket Modern Greek", Owlets, 1990, ISBN 0805015108, ISBN 0848951069
• Pring, J. T. The Pocket Oxford Greek Dictionary, Oxford University Press, 2000. ISBN 0-19-860327-4