Military rank

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Military rank, or, more commonly, simply rank, is a system of grading seniority and command within armed forces or otherwise military-style organizations.

Within armed forces, the use of ranks is almost universal. The Chinese People's Liberation Army (1965–1988)[1], the Albanian Army (1966–1991)[2], and the Soviet Red Army (1918–1935) (Rosignoli 1984) are rare examples of armed forces which abolished rank only to re-establish them after encountering operational difficulties of command and control.

1 Ancient and Medieval ranks
2 Modern ranks
3 Appointment
4 Size of command
5 References
6 See also
7 External links

[edit] Ancient and Medieval ranks

[edit] Persian ranks

The army of ancient Persia consisted of sizeable military groupings under individual commands. Starting at the bottom, a unit of 10 was called a dathabam and was led by a dathapatish. A unit of 1,000 was a hazarabam and commanded by a hazarapatish. A unit of 10,000 was a baivarabam and commanded by a baivarapatish. The Greeks called such masses of troops a myrias or myriad. Among mounted troops, an asabam was a cavalry unit led by an asapatish.

[edit] Greek ranks

From 501 BCE the Athenians elected each year ten individuals to the rank of strategos, one for each of the ten "tribes" that had been created with the founding of the democracy. Strategos literally means "army leader," hence it is usually translated as "general." Originally these generals worked together with the old polemarchos or polemarch ("war minister") but over time this figure lost all military function.

The ten generals were equals of each other without any hierarchy between them: at the Battle of Marathon in 490 BCE the generals decided the battle plan by majority vote. Particular assignments, however, might be given to individual generals and from some point there was a regular division of responsibilities.

The rank that was subordinate to a top general was a taxiarchos or taxiarhos, something akin to the modern brigadier. In Sparta, however, the title was polemarchos. Below this was the syntagmatarkhis, which can be translated as "leader of a regiment" (syntagma) and was therefore like a modern colonel. Below him was the tagmatarkhis, commanding officer of a tagma (near to the modern battalion). The rank was roughly equivalent to the legatus of a Roman legion. Next was the lokhagos, an officer who led an infantry unit called a lokhos consisting of a hundred men—much like a modern company led by a captain.

A Greek cavalry (hippikè) regiment was called a hipparchia and was commanded by a hyparchos or hipparch, but Spartan cavalry was led by a hipparmostes. A hippotoxotès was a horse archer. A Greek cavalry company was led by a tetrarchès or tetrarch.

As for the rank and file of the military in most of the Greek city states, it was made up of ordinary citizens and was organized on democratic principles. Discipline was relatively weak. Heavily armed foot soldiers were called hoplitès or hoplites and a hoplomachos was a drill or weapons instructor.

Once Athens became a naval power, the top generals had charge of the navy as well. Under them each warship was commanded by a trièrarchos or trierarch, a word which originally meant "trireme officer" but continued on when other types of vessel came into use. Moreover, as in modern navies, the different tasks associated with running a ship were delegated to different subordinates. The kybernètès was the helmsman, the keleusthès managed the rowing speed, and the trièraulès was the flute player who maintained the strike rate of oarsmen. Following further specialization, the naval strategos was replaced by a nauarchos, a sea officer or admiral.

With the rise of Macedonia under Philip II of Macedon and Alexander the Great, the Greek military became professional, tactics became more sophisticated, and additional levels of ranking developed.

Foot soldiers were organized into heavy infantry phalanxes and called phalangites. They were among the first troops ever to be drilled and they fought packed in a close rectangular formation, typically eight men deep, with a leader at the head of each column or file and a secondary leader in the middle, so that the back rows could move off to the sides if more frontage was needed.

A tetrarchia was a unit of four files and a tetrarchès or tetrarch a commander of four files; a dilochia was a double file and a dilochitès a double-file leader; a lochos was a single file and a lochagos a file leader; a dimoiria was a half file and a dimoirites a half-file leader. Another name for the half file was a hèmilochion with a hèmilochitès as a half-file leader.

Different types of units, however, were divided differently and therefore their leaders had different titles. For example, under a numbering system by tens, a dekas or dekania was a unit of ten led by a dekarchos, a hekatontarchia was a unit of hundred led by a hekatontarchès, and a chiliostys or chiliarchia was a unit of a thousand led by a chiliarchès.

The cavalry, for which Alexander became most famous, militarily, grew more varied. There was heavy cavalry and wing cavalry (ilè) units, the latter commanded by an ilarchès.

[edit] Roman ranks

The use of formalized ranks came into widespread use with the Roman legions after the introduction of reforms by the consul Gaius Marius, which were completed around 60 BCE. Under the new system, a legion would be commanded by a legate (legatus), typically a senator, for a three-year term. Immediately beneath the legate were six military tribunes (tribuni militum), five of whom were young men of Equestrian rank and one a nobleman who was headed for the Senate.

The fighting men in the legion were formed into ranks: rows of men who fought as a unit. Under the new system, legions were divided into ten cohorts (cohortes), each consisting of six centuries, each of between 60 and 160 men. Each century was led by a centurion (centurio), assisted by a number of junior officers. Centuries were further broken into ten contubernia, each of eight soldiers. Individual soldiers were referred to as soldiers (milites) or legionaries (legionarii).

[edit] Mongol ranks

There were no "ranks" in the Mongol Empire in the modern sense of a hierarchy of titles, although the army was organized into a hierarchical command (see "Mongol military tactics and organization"). The organization of the Mongol army was based on that of the Achaemenid Empire of Persia: the decimal system. The army was built upon a squad of ten (arban) led by an elected chief. Ten of these would then compose a company of a hundred (jaghun), also led by an elected chief. The next unit was a regiment of a thousand (minghan) led by an appointed noyan. The largest organic unit was a ten thousand man unit (tumen) led by an appointed noyan. Field armies would normally consist of three tumens with attendant siege units grouped into independent minghans under a unified command staff led by an Orlok. In addition, the quartermasters of the Mongol armies carried the title of Yurtchi (a person in charge of yurts). They were very strong and powerful.

[edit] Modern ranks

Many English-language military ranks descend from three sources of French-language origins. From renaissance mercenary titles come corporal (as though "corps man," but actually from French caporal, "chief"), sergeant ("servant"), captain ("head man"), and general (a shortening of the term "captain general"). From the era of the Napoleonic Wars came colonel (head of a column), lieutenant ("one who stands in place of"), and marshal ("stable manager"). From World War II come a number of specialist ranks. Most modern military services recognize three broad categories of personnel. These are codified in the Geneva Conventions, which somewhat ambiguously distinguishes "officers", "non-commissioned officers" and "men".

Apart from possible conscripted personnel one can distinguish:

[edit] Commissioned officers

Officers are distinguished from other military members by holding a commission; they are trained as leaders and hold command positions.

Officers are further separated into three levels:

Officers who typically command units or formations that are expected to operate independently for extended periods of time (brigades and larger, or flotillas or squadrons of ships), are referred to variously as General Officers (army, marines, and some air forces), Flag Officers (navy), or Air Officers (some Commonwealth air forces).

General Officer ranks typically include (from the top down) General, Lieutenant General, Major General, and Brigadier General, although there are many variations.

Flag Officer ranks, named after the traditional practice of showing the presence of such an officer with a flag on a ship and often land, typically include (from the top down) Admiral, Vice Admiral and Rear Admiral. In some navies, such as Canada's, the rank of Commodore is a flag rank.

In the United Kingdom and most other Commonwealth air forces, Air Officer ranks usually include Air Chief Marshal, Air Marshal, Air Vice-Marshal and Air Commodore. Some air forces, however, such as those of Canada and United States, army General Officer ranks are used.

In some forces there may be one or more superior ranks to the common examples, above, that are given distinguishing titles, such as Field Marshal (many armies), Fleet Admiral (U.S. Navy), Marshal of the Royal Air Force, or other national air force. These ranks have often been discontinued, such as in Germany and Canada, or limited to wartime and/or honorific promotion, such as in the United Kingdom and the United States

In various countries, particularly the United States, these may be referred to as "star ranks" for the number of stars worn on some rank insignia: typically one star for Brigadier General or equivalent with the addition of a star for each subsequent rank. While in the United States five stars has been the maximum used in all services (excluding the U.S. Marines which has only used four), the historical but still substantive ranks of General of the Armies and Admiral of the Navy are notionally referred to as "six star" ranks.

Some titles are not genuine ranks, but either functions assumed by generals or honorific titles. For instance, in the French Army Général de corps d'armée is a function assumed by some Généraux de division, and Maréchal de France which is a distinction denoting the most superior military office, but one that has often neutered the practical command powers of those on whom it is conferred.

[edit] Field or Senior officers

Field officers, also called "field-grade officers" or "senior officers", are senior officers who typically command units that can be expected to operate independently for short periods of time (infantry battalions, cavalry or artillery regiments, large warships, air squadrons). Field officers also commonly fill staff positions.

The term "field(-grade) officer" is primarily used by armies and marines; air forces and navies generally prefer the term "senior officer." The two terms are not necessarily synonymous.

Typical army and marine Field Officer ranks include Colonel, Lieutenant Colonel, and Major. In many Commonwealth countries the field rank of Brigadier is used, although it fills the position held by Brigadier General in other countries.

Typical naval Senior Officer ranks include Captain, Commander, and Lieutenant Commander. In some countries, the more senior rank of Commodore is also used, a position that follows the flag flying tradition (above) of Flag Officers but through the use of a dove-tail pennant of rank instead of the flag or triangular pennant of other senior officers.

Commonwealth air force Senior Officer ranks include Group Captain, Wing Commander, and Squadron Leader.

[edit] Company Grade or Junior Officers

The ranks of junior officers are the three or four lowest ranks of officers. Units under their command are generally not expected to operate independently for any significant length of time. Company grade officers also fill staff roles in some units. In some militaries, however, a captain may act as the permanent commanding officer of an independent company-sized unit, for example a signal or field engineer squadron, or a field artillery battery.

Typical army Company Officer ranks include Captain and various grades of Lieutenant. Typical naval Junior Officer ranks include various grades of Lieutenant and/or Ensign. Commonwealth air force Junior Officer ranks usually include Flight Lieutenant, Flying Officer, and Pilot Officer.

[edit] Warrant Officers

Warrant officers (as receiving authority by virtue of a warrant) are a hybrid rank treated slightly differently in each country and/or service. WOs may either be effectively senior non-commissioned officers or an entirely separate grade between commissioned and non-commissioned officers, usually held by specialist personnel.

[edit] Enlisted personnel

Enlisted personnel (called Other Ranks (ORs) in the United Kingdom and some Commonwealth countries, Non-commissioned members (NCMs) in Canada) are personnel below commissioned or warrant rank and make up the vast majority of military personnel.

	E-1	E-2	E-3	E-4	E-5	E-6	E-7	E-8	E-9
U.S. military enlisted ranks
Air Force:	AB	Amn	A1C	SrA	SSgt	TSgt	MSgt	SMSgt	CMSgt - CCM - CMSAF
Army:	PV1	PV2	PFC	SPC - CPL	SGT	SSG	SFC	MSG - 1SG	SGM - CSM - SMA
Marine Corps:	Pvt	PFC	LCpl	Cpl	Sgt	SSgt	GySgt	MSgt - 1st Sgt	MGySgt - SgtMaj - SMOMC
Navy:	SR	SA	SN	PO3	PO2	PO1	CPO	SCPO	MCPO - CMCPO - MCPON
Coast Guard:	SR	SA	SN	PO3	PO2	PO1	CPO	SCPO	MCPO - CMCPO - MCPOCG

[edit] Non-Commissioned Officers

Non-commissioned officers (NCOs) are enlisted personnel, under the command of an officer, granted delegated authority to supervise other military members or assigned significant administrative responsibilities. In U.S. Army parlance: "NCOs are the backbone of the Army!"[3] They are responsible for the care and direct control of junior military members, often functioning in the smaller field units as Executive Officers.

Even the most senior NCO officially ranks beneath the most junior commissioned officer or warrant officer. However, most senior NCOs have more experience, possibly including combat, than junior officers. In some organizations, senior NCOs may have formal responsibility and informal respect beyond that of junior officers, but less than that of warrant officers. Many warrant officers come from the ranks of mid-career NCOs. In some countries warrant ranks replace senior enlisted ranks.

NCO ranks typically include a varying number of grades of Sergeant and Corporal (air force, army and marines), or Chief Petty Officer and Petty Officer (navy and coast guard). In many navies the term rate is used instead of rank.

[edit] Other enlisted ranks

Personnel with no command authority usually bear titles such as Private, Marine, Airman/Aircraftman and Seaman. In some countries and services, personnel in different branches have different titles. These may have a variety of grades, but these usually only reflect variations in pay, not increased authority. These may or may not technically be ranks, depending on the country and/or service.

[edit] Appointment

Appointment refers to the instrument by virtue of which the person exercises his or her authority. Officers are appointed by a Royal Commission in most monarchies or a Presidential Commission in many other countries. In the Commonwealth, Warrant Officers hold a Royal or Presidential Warrant. NCOs are appointed by an instrument of appointment, a written document, often a certificate, usually from the service head. Entry into service is often referred to as enlistment throughout the English speaking world, even in countries where soldiers do not technically enlist.

Sometimes personnel serve in an appointment which is higher than their actual rank. For instance, Commodore used to be an appointment of Captain in the Royal Navy, Lance Corporal used to be an appointment of Private in the British Army, and Master Corporal is an appointment of Corporal in the Canadian Forces.

[edit] Size of command

Main article: Military organization

To get a sense of the practical meaning of these ranks—and thus to be able to compare them across the different armed services, different nations, and the variations of titles and insignia—an understanding of the relative levels and sizes of each command will be helpful. The ranking and command system used by U.S. Marine ground forces can serve as a template for this purpose. It should be remembered that different countries will often use their own systems which won't match that of the U.S. Marines. In fact, the U.S. Army assigns a different rank to command the same type of unit as the Marines!

Under this system, starting from the bottom and working up, a Corporal leads a Fireteam consisting of three other marines. A Sergeant leads a Squad consisting of three Fireteams. As a result, a full squad numbers 13 individuals.

A Lieutenant commands a Platoon, which can consist of three or four Squads. In Marine infantry units, Rifle Platoons usually consist of three Rifle Squads of 13 men each, with a Navy corpsman, the Platoon Commander, and a Platoon Sergeant (a Staff Sergeant who serves as Executive Officer). A Weapons Platoon replaces the three squads with a 60 mm mortar section, an assault section, and a medium machine gun section. An infantry Platoon can number from 42 to 55 individuals.

A Captain commands a Company, usually consisting of four Platoons (three Rifle Platoons and one Weapons Platoon). His command post can include a Gunnery Sergeant and as many as seven others. So a Company can comprise from roughly 175 to 225 individuals.

A Lieutenant Colonel commands a Battalion, often consisting of four Companies plus the various members of his command post, bringing the total to between 700 and 900. A Colonel commands a Regiment, often consisting of four Battalions totalling from 2,800 to 3,600 members.

In these latter, abstractions cease to be helpful and it becomes necessary to turn to an actual unit. The 1st Battalion of the 1st Marine Regiment of the 1st Marine Division of the I Marine Expeditionary Force consists of three infantry companies, one weapons company, and one headquarters and service company. Above that, the 1st Marine Regiment (First Marines) consists of four such Battalions and one headquarters company.

The next level has traditionally been a Brigade, commanded by a Brigadier General, and containing two or more Regiments. But this structure is considered obsolete today. At the present time, in the U.S. Army, a Brigade is roughly equal to or a little larger than a Regiment. Strength typically ranges from 1,500 to 3,500 personnel. In the U.S. Marines, Brigades are only formed for certain missions. In size and nature they are larger and more varied collections of Battalions than is common for a Regiment, fitting them for their traditional role as the smallest formation able to operate independently on a battlefield without external logistical tactical support.

The level above Regiment and Brigade is the Division, commanded by a Major General and consisting of from 10,000 to 20,000 persons. The 1st Marine Division, for example, is made up of four Marine Regiments (of the type described above), one Assault Amphibian Battalion, one Reconnaissance Battalion, two Light Armored Reconnaissance Battalions, one Combat Engineer Battalion, one Tank Battalion, and one Headquarters Battalion—totalling more than 19,000 Marines. (Within the Headquarters Battalion are one Headquarters Company, one Service Company, one Military Police Company, one Communications Company, and one Truck Company.)

Considering such a variety of units, the command sizes for any given rank will vary widely. Not all units are as troop intensive as infantry forces need to be. Tank and artillery crews, for example, involve far less personnel. Numbers also differ for non-combat units such as quartermasters, cooks, and hospital staff. Beyond this, in any real situation, not all units will be full strength and there will be various attachments and detachments of assorted specialists woven throughout the system.

The 1st Marine Division is part of the I Marine Expeditionary Force, which also includes the 3rd Marine Air Wing, 1st Service Support Group, 1st Marine Expeditionary Brigade, three Marine Expeditionary Units (featuring helicopter groups), and a Battalion-sized Marine Air Ground Task Force. In the U.S. Marine Corps there are three Marine Expeditionary Forces.

In the U.S. Army, the level above Division is called a Corps instead of an Expeditionary Force. It is commanded by a Lieutenant General. In many armies, a Corps numbers around 60,000, usually divided into three divisions.

During World War II, due to the large scale of combat, multiple Corps were combined into Armies commanded by a General (four stars) and comprising as many as 240,000 troops. These were in their turn formed into Army Groups, these being the largest field organization handled by a single commander in modern warfare. Army Groups included between 400,000 and 1,500,000 troops.

These examples illustrate a standard that holds true all over the world and throughout history: rank generally implies size of command in a nested system of ranks and commands. But the specific size of a command for any given rank will depend on the task the unit performs, the nature of weapons used, and the strategies of warfare.

[edit] References

Hamel, Debra 1998, Athenian generals : Military authority in the classical period. Leiden.

Oxford Classical Dictionary, 2nd edition, 1996: strategoi.

Rosignoli, Guido (1984). World Army Badges and Insignia Since 1939. Dorset: Blandford Press.

Warry, John Gibson (1980) Warfare in the classical world: an illustrated encyclopedia of weapons, warriors, and warfare in the ancient civilisations of Greece and Rome. New York, St. Martin's Press.