Military history of Africa

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The military history of Africa is one of the oldest and most diverse military histories. Africa is a continent of diverse regions with diverse people speaking hundreds of different languages with many different cultures and religions. These differences have also been the source of much conflict since the dawn of time. Africa is surrounded by oceans, with only a tiny overland link to Asia in the northeast (but that too was cut by the Suez Canal that was completed in 1869.)

The military history of Africa includes many diverse civilizations from antiquity to the modern day. Like the history of Africa, African military history is often divided by region. North Africa was part of the Mediterranean cultures and was integral to the military history of antiquity. The military history of modern Africa may be divided into four broad time periods: pre-colonial, colonial, and post-colonial.

Contents 1 Antiquity 1.1 Ancient Egyptian military history 2 Military history of modern Africa 2.1 Pre-colonial 2.2 Colonial 2.2.1 Liberation struggle 2.3 Post-colonial 3 Military history of Africa by regions 3.1 Military history of Northern Africa 3.2 Military history of Western Africa 3.3 Military history of Eastern Africa 3.4 Military history of Central Africa 3.5 Military history of Southern Africa 4 Notes and references

[edit] Antiquity

[edit] Ancient Egyptian military history

In 3100 BC, Ancient Egypt was united by Menes. The end of the Old Kingdom ushered in a period of instability that was not stabilized until Mentuhotep II solidified his rule in about 2055 BC to begin the Middle Kingdom. This period came to end with the invasion of the Hyksos, who introduced the war chariot. This new technology was quickly adopted by the Egyptians who succeeded in expelling the invaders at the start of the New Kingdom in the 16th century BC. The revitalized Egyptians expanded north and east into Eurasia to the Aegean and into much of the Levant, as far as the Euphrates River. Egypt also moved west into Libya and south into Sudan, where it defeated a Nubian civilization. The gradual disintegration in the Twentieth Dynasty allowed the founding of the Kushite kingdoms of Nubia, centered on Napata. Kush reached a height under Piye, who conquered Egypt and founded the Twenty-fifth Dynasty. However, the Kushites were gradually driven back to Napata by an Assyrian invasion and then the resistance of the Twenty-sixth Dynasty kings.

[edit] Military history of modern Africa

[edit] Pre-colonial

While European exploration began with mapping of the western coasts by the Portuguese, large-scale intervention did not occur until much later. During the 1529 – 1543 campaign of Ahmad ibn Ibrihim al-Ghazi most of Ethiopia and Somalia was conquered by the Adal forces equipped by the Ottoman empire. However, in the Battle of Wayna Daga, Portuguese musketeers proved decisive, killing al-Ghazi in retaliation of the death of their commander, Cristovão da Gama. In 1652, with Portuguese power in decline, the Dutch East India Company sent a fleet of three small ships under Jan van Riebeeck to set up the first permanent white colony in southern Africa at Table Bay, and began expanding northwards.

[edit] Colonial

[edit] Liberation struggle

Starting in the 1950s, anti-colonial movements agitated for independence from the colonial powers. This agitation, coupled with an international system that was increasingly hostile to colonialism, led to a process of decolonization that was often violent.

The first successful anti-colonial armed struggle was the Algerian War of Independence (1954–1962) against France. Other examples of successful armed resistance include the insurgency launched in 1962 by the PAIGC in Guinea-Bissau, the Mozambican War of Independence (1964 – 1972), and the early stages of the Angolan Civil War in the 1960s.^[1] The Rhodesian Bush War (1971 – 1979) was not against a colonial metropole, but the minority white government of Ian Smith. These national liberation movements were informed by the successful guerrilla warfare doctrine used in the Indonesian National Revolution (1945 – 1949) and the First Indochina War (1946 – 1954). The insurgents' goal was thus not to win the war — and no colonial army was ever defeated — but simply not to lose, thus making the conduct of the war unbearable for the colonial power over the long term. The writings of Frantz Fanon on the Algerian conflict became hugely influential on later African conflicts. These conflicts benefited from internal ideological and organizational cohesion, sympathetic diplomatic backing in global forums, some financial backing (in particular from the Nordic states) and military training and supplies from the Soviet bloc.^[1]

Two national liberation movements that became violent and were unsuccessful in that they did not lead to de facto capitulation and independence were the Mau Mau Uprising (1952 – 1960). Colonial security forces were reinforced by regular troops from the metropolitan power and the insurgent groups were hampered by a lack of military equipment and training, as well as the absence of a friendly adjoining country offering sanctuary.^[1]

There have been two liberation movements against an African power over the borders drawn during the colonial period. The Polisario Front began a struggle in 1973 for the independence of Western Sahara against Spain and then Morocco, when the North African country invaded. In Eritrea, the Eritrean Liberation Front and later Eritrean People's Liberation Front carried out an independence struggle against Ethiopia that culminated successfully in 1991. In two special cases, and in contrast to these bloody wars, both Namibia's South-West Africa People's Organisation (1960s – 1990) and the activities of Umkhonto we Sizwe, the military wing of South Africa's African National Congress, utilized armed conflict comparatively less in their struggles.^[2]

[edit] Post-colonial

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[edit] Military history of Africa by regions

[edit] Military history of Northern Africa

Main articles: North Africa , History of North Africa , and History of the Mediterranean region

North Africa and Southern Europe face each other across the Mediterranean Sea. Most of the southern areas of North Africa are cut off by the vast inhospitable Sahara desert. Therefore, the coastal areas have many resources to support the needs of large armies and the moderate-to-hot climate makes the movement of forces across vast stretches of land very feasible. North Africa has been the source of both cultural and economic interactions as well as military rivalries that became famous wars in history. Egypt is located in Africa, and the Ancient Egyptian Empire (3150 BC – 3131 BC) was noted for its use of massed horse-drawn chariots in warfare, as well as fighting against invading empires from Babylonia, Assyria, and the Persian Empire. Ancient Greece and the armies of Alexander the Great (336 BC – 323 BC) invaded and conquered some parts of North Africa and his generals set up the Ptolemaic dynasty in Egypt. The armies of the Roman Republic (509 BC – 31 BC) and the Roman Empire (31 BC – AD 476) subsequently conquered the entire coastal areas of North Africa. The people of Carthage fought the bloody and lengthy Punic Wars (264 BC – 146 BC) against Rome.

Each century has seen the invasion of North Africa by various peoples, empires, nations and religions, and each in turn yielded its wars and conflicts.

Beginning in the 7th century, the military victories of the Umayyads, the Abbasids, the Fatimids, the Mamluks and the Ottomans ensured and consolidated the strength and continuity of Islam in North Africa over many centuries.

Attacks by the Barbary pirates, based in the North African areas of Algeria, prompted the building of the United States Navy, including one of America's most famous ships, the USS Philadelphia, leading to a series of wars along the North African coast, starting in 1801. It was not until 1815 that naval victories ended tribute payments by the U.S., although some European nations continued annual payments until the 1830s. The United States Marine Corps' actions in these wars led to the line, "to the shores of Tripoli" in the opening of the Marine Hymn.

The arrival of modern colonialism, World War I and World War II brought armies from afar to fight in North Africa, often against each other and not always against the native inhabitants. Battles such as the Tunisia Campaign eventually yielded the first battlefield victories of the Allies of World War II against the Axis powers of World War II. These battles were fought and won by the Allies in North Africa such as at the Battle of El Alamein in 1942, one of the most significant and pivotal battles of that war, during the North African campaign. At the Battle of the Kasserine Pass, the Germans first faced the military of the United States.

When modern Islamic countries gained their independence in North Africa, often following serious warfare (such as during the Algerian War of Independence against the Fench), the Arab-Israeli conflict became the main focus of significant battles. During the 1973 Yom Kippur War, the Egytian army broke through the Bar Lev Line, invading the Israeli-held Sinai Peninsula, but the Israel Defense Forces counter-attacked, invading Egypt on the African mainland and fought the Egyptian army to a standstill.

[edit] Military history of Western Africa

Main articles: West Africa and History of West Africa

West Africa has known many ancient empires that flourished in ancient times and were involved in wars of both conquest and defeat. The Ghana Empire (750 – 1036), Songhai Empire (1500s – 1600s), Mali Empire (1235 – 1546), the Bambara Empire (1652 – 1861), Toucouleur (1800s), Fulani Empire (such as the Fulani War (1804 – 1810)), Kénédougou Kingdom (c. 1650 – 1898), Massina Empire (1800s) rose and fell as they fought wars and won or were defeated.

During the colonial era, the powers of Europe sought to carve new colonies for themselves, as well as capturing Africans and shipping them off as slaves to the Americas. This was made possible geographically because West Africa's coast is on the Atlantic Ocean, making it both open to cultural and trade influences, as well as to conquest by sea. West Africa is rich in many precious metals, minerals and products, which invites the interest and competition of outside powers and influences. There were some bloody conflicts in the 20th century when some of these nations fought against the colonial powers, such as during the Portuguese Colonial War in Guinea-Bissau (1961 – 1974).

During the centuries, several African countries experienced bitter civil wars, the bloodiest of which was the Nigerian Civil War (1967 – 1970) when Biafra sought to break away from Nigeria. Other countries have had either civil wars, internal military strife, and military coup d'états such as the Sierra Leone Civil War (1991 – 2002), Liberian Civil War (1989 – 1986), Guinea-Bissau Civil War (1998 – 1999). Recent wars have been the Independence War in Cabinda (1997 – 2006), the Civil war in Côte d'Ivoire (2002 – 2004), and the Casamance Conflict (1990 – present).

[edit] Military history of Eastern Africa

Main article: East Africa

East Africa, including the Horn of Africa, partly faces the Red Sea, the Arabian Sea, and mostly the Indian Ocean, which means that its main interactions have predominantly been with the nations of Asia, particularly those in the areas of Arabian Peninsula, the Middle East and as afar as India. Its coastal plain is hemmed in by mountain ranges which make the movemement of large armies difficult and cumbersome and favor local forces that resist. Countries and areas with ancient histories, such as the Sudan, Ethiopia, Kenya, Uganda and Somalia, all have had eras of great empires, have been invaded or occupied by other powers, or have themselves been subjected to defeat in battle. Various ancient empires extended and consolidated their power over large parts of East Africa, such as the Kingdom of Aksum (300s BC – AD 100s), the Solomonic dynasty (1270 BC – AD 1974), and the Ajuran dynasty. Large parts of East Africa were conquered by the Ottoman Empire (1299 – 1922) in the 17th century.

Italy invaded Abyssinia (modern Ethiopia) and fought the First Italo-Abyssinian War (1889 – 1896) and the Second Italo-Abyssinian War (1935 – 1936) in its bid to set up its colony of Italian East Africa. And Germany sought to establish its colony in German East Africa, fighting doggedly for its goals during the East African Campaign (World War I). Both Italy and Germany were defeated by the forces of Great Britain and its allies.

In the 20th century, a number of groups engaged in guerrilla warfare in their fight to gain independence from the colonial powers, such as the Maji Maji Rebellion (1905 – 1907) against the Germans, and the Mau Mau Uprising (1952 – 1960) against the British in Kenya. There have been some bloody civil wars, military coups and genocide during the course of many wars and revolutions, such as the Ethiopian Civil War (1974 – 1991), the Ogaden War (1977 – 1978), First and Second Sudanese Civil War (1955 – 2005), Eritrean War of Independence (1961 - 1991), Burundi Civil War (1993 - 2005), 1998 American embassy bombings, Eritrean-Ethiopian War (1998 - 2000), and the Rwandan Genocide (1994). During the Somali Civil War (1988 - present), the United States military intervened and during the Battle of Mogadishu (1993), its units had to retreat and became a humiliating well-known incident. The Somali Civil War (2006-present) continues, as do the Ugandan Civil War, the Darfur conflict and a few others.

[edit] Military history of Central Africa

Main article: Central Africa

Central Africa, at times also called Middle Africa, is almost entirely landlocked; it lies astride the equator with heavy rainforest jungles and is rich in minerals and natural products. In ancient times there had been a Kingdom of Kongo which confronted invasions from explorers and settlers from Portugal starting in the 1400s. The harsh colonial era of the Belgian Congo (1908 – 1960) gave way to the Congo Crisis (1960 – 1965) that brought in UN peacekeepers, particularly after the mineral-rich Katanga Province failed to secede in 1960, even though it had the support of Belgian business interests and over 6000 Belgian troops. Subsequent conflicts in the Congo were the First Congo War (1996 – 1997) to oust President Mobutu, Second Congo War (1998 – 2003) between various factions with the intervention of many other African countries, making this an African regional civil war, and the ongoing Ituri Conflict.

The Kanem-Bornu Empire (9th century – 19th century) of ancient Chad stretched to parts of modern southern Libya, eastern Niger, northeastern Nigeria, and northern Cameroon until it was overwhelmed by attacks and wars from the Fula people, Baggara, Kanembu people, and the Ouaddai Kingdom. The Arabs and Islamic powers have had an historical impact, as in the history of the Central African Republic, the Arab slave trade was forcibly imposed upon the people of Central Africa.

The colonial powers, particuraly Belgium and France, were dominant during during the 18th and 19th centuries.

There have been a number of civil wars and genocides in Central Africa that are also close to East Africa, such as the Burundi genocide and the Rwandan genocide, the latter of which was suppressed through foreign interevention in Opération Turquoise (1994). Some of the most notorious military dictators were Bokassa I of Central Africa (1921 – 1996) and Mobutu Sese Seko (1930 – 1997) of Zaire.

[edit] Military history of Southern Africa

Main articles: Southern Africa and Military history of South Africa

Southern Africa, like the other main regions of Africa, is a complex region with strong connections to Europe. It has some land-locked countries, but it is most notable in that it is surrounded by both the Atlantic Ocean to the west and the Indian Ocean to the east. It is in this context that the position of the Cape of Good Hope, South Africa, and Southern Africa as a whole should be appreciated, because in the Southern Hemisphere, only South Africa, the southern end of South America, and Australia have this key strategic position. In addition, from Europe — and also from the east coasts of the United States and South America (Brazil, Argentina), the route around South Africa's Cape is the shortest to Asia.

The Suez Canal did not exist for most of history. It was only completed in 1869, so that all shipping back and forth from Europe to Asia, Arabia, and to most of Africa had and has to be done by the long routes across the seas around South Africa's Cape. In addition, even after the Suez Canal's completion and modernization, it cannot accommodate larger vessels including many warships, tankers, and cargo vessels. Thus the Cape of Good Hope route remains one of the most important and highly desirable routes for free shipping when some of the world's other global choke points are closed off or in a state of war. Wealthy nations are usually great maritime naval powers, and the use of navies is tied in with protecting those great nations' trade and their military strength, both of which result in geostrategic strength. Essentially, the power that has the mightiest navy and prevails on the high seas becomes the world's greatest power, which is something nations have known for a long time, hence their commercial and naval rivalry on the high seas.

In the UN scheme of geographic regions, five countries constitute Southern Africa. The most powerful is South Africa, while the others are the small countries of Botswana, Lesotho, Namibia and Swaziland. The region is often reckoned to include Angola (often also included in Central Africa); Mozambique and Madagascar (also included in East Africa); Malawi; Zambia; and Zimbabwe — as well as Comoros, Mauritius, Seychelles, Mayotte, and Réunion, which are small islands in the Indian Ocean. The Democratic Republic of the Congo and Tanzania, though more commonly reckoned in Central and Eastern Africa respectively, are occasionally included in Southern Africa. This commonality between thse countries has had a great influence on their military history.

The most notable wars and conflicts in Southern Africa were those between the colonial powers of Europe who fought to dominate and control the African people of Southern Africa as well as the wars between the British and the white Boers, also known as Afrikaners, who were mostly the descendants of earlier Dutch settlers.

The early Dutch settlers fought the Khoikhoi-Dutch Wars (1659 – 1677) in the area of present-day Cape Town, South Africa. Anglo-Dutch wars followed, with battles at Battle of Muizenberg (1795) and the Battle of Blaauwberg (1806) that established British power in South Africa permanently.

The Boers, descended from the Dutch, expanded inland from the southern coast and confronted the Xhosa in a series of Xhosa Wars (1779 – 1879) that resulted in the final defeat of the Xhosa. There was also an inter-Black civil war during the Ndwandwe-Zulu War (1817 – 1819) and the Mfecane (185 – 1835) with the triumph of the Zulu. The Boers and Zulus confronted each other at the Battle of Italeni (1838) and the Battle of Blood River (1838), resulting in the defeat of the Zulu, but Zulu national power was not ended until the conclusion of the Anglo-Zulu War (1879).

The British fought the Boers during the First Boer War (1880 – 1881) and the Second Boer War (1899 – 1902). With the triumph of the British armies, the largest Africa had ever seen, South Africa was united and became an ally of Great Britain. During World War I, South Africa created the South African Overseas Expeditionary Force and thousands of South Africans died at Delville Wood, (Battle of the Somme (1916)) and at Passchendaele (1917). General Jan Smuts was leader of the South African military campaign during the East African Campaign (World War I) and the colony of German South-West Africa (World War I) was taken from the Germans under the leadership of General Louis Botha.

South Africa and its military forces contributed in many theaters of war during WWII. South Africa's contribution consisted mainly of supplying troops, men and material for the North African campaign (the Desert War) and the Italian Campaign, as well as to Allied ships that docked at its crucial ports adjoining the Atlantic Ocean and Indian Ocean that converge at the tip of Southern Africa. Numerous volunteers also flew for the Royal Air Force. (See: South African Army in World War II; South African Air Force in World War II; South African Navy in World War II.)

1. The South African Army and Air Force helped defeat the Italian army of the Fascist Benito Mussolini that had invaded Abyssinia (now known as Ethiopia) in 1935. During the 1941 East African Campaign South African forces made important contribution to this early Allied victory.
2. Another important victory that the South Africans participated in was the liberation of Malagasy (now known as Madagascar) from the control of the Vichy French, who were allies of the Nazis. British troops aided by South African soldiers staged their attack from South Africa and occupied the strategic island in 1942 to preclude its seizure by the Japanese.
3. The South African 1st Infantry Division took part in several actions in North Africa in 1941 and 1942, including the Battle of El Alamein, before being withdrawn to South Africa.
4. The South African 2nd Infantry Division also took part in a number of actions in North Africa during 1942, but on 21 June 1942 two complete infantry brigades of the division, as well as most of the supporting units, were captured at the fall of Tobruk.
5. The South African 3rd Infantry Division never took an active part in any battles, but instead organised and trained the South African home defence forces, performed garrison duties, and supplied replacements for the South African 1st Infantry Division and the South African 2nd Infantry Division. However, one of this division's constituent brigades, 7 SA Motorised Brigade, did take part in the invasion of Madagascar in 1942.
6. The South African 6th Armoured Division fought in numerous actions in Italy from 1944 to 1945.
7. South Africa contributed to the war effort against Japan, supplying men and manning ships in naval engagements against the Japanese. ^[3]

Altogether, 334,000 men volunteered for full-time service in the South African Army during WWII, including some 211,000 whites, 77,000 blacks and 46,000 "coloureds" and Asians), with nearly 9,000 killed in action.

Modern conflicts against the Afrikaner-dominated Apartheid government were led by the African Umkhonto we Sizwe of the African National Congress and the Azanian People's Liberation Army which received much training and armament from communist states such as the Soviet Union and the People's Republic of China (the latter of which stationed a large military force in Tanzania). The South African Border War (1966 – 1989) was fought by the White-lead government against its Southern African neighbors, who at some point were also still under White rule, and who were supporting a variety of Black liberation movements, such as SWAPO in Namibia, FRELIMO in Mozambique, the MPLA in Angola, and ZANU in Zimbabwe.

The Angolan War of Independence (1961 – 1989), part of a broader Portuguese Colonial War in Africa, was follwed by the Angolan Civil War (1974 – 2002). Similarly, the Mozambican War of Independence (1964 – 1975) was followed by the Mozambican Civil War (1970s – 1992). The Rhodesian Bush War (1971 – 1979) was fought between the White-dominated government and Black liberation movements.

South Africa was suspected of having built nuclear weapons and perhaps of even testing one off its coast (facing the South Pole near Antarctica) as part of what has become known as the Vela Incident. As of 2006, no African country has obtained nuclear weapons of any sort, as far as is known.

[edit] Notes and references