Mehmed-paša Sokolović
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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| Born : |
1506 Ravanci, Sokolovići, Bosnia Province1, Ottoman Empire |
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| Died : |
1579 Istanbul, Ottoman Empire |
Mehmed-paša Sokolović (Turkish: Sokollu Mehmet Paşa) (born 1506, Sokolovići1 - died 1579, Istanbul) was an important 16th century Ottoman statesman of Bosnian Serb origins. Born in a Serbian Orthodox[1] village in southeast Bosnia, Sokolović was taken away at an early age as part of the devshirmeh system in order to be raised as a janissary. Through the course of his career he rose through the ranks of the Ottoman imperial system, variously holding positions as commander of the imperial guard (1543-1546), High Admiral of the Fleet (1546-1551), Governor-General of Rumelia (1551-1555), Third Vizier of the Porte (1555-1561), Second Vizier of the Porte (1561-1565) and the Grand Vizier of the Porte (1565-1579) to three Sultans: Suleiman the Magnificent, Selim II, and Murad III.[2] He was assassinated in 1579, ending a 15-year reign as the de facto absolute ruler of the Ottoman Empire.[2]
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[edit] Biography
[edit] Early years
Little is known for certain about Mehmed-paša's birth and early life - Turkish chroniclers and historians only took significant notice of him after he had attained great standing in the Ottoman hierarchy. The facts regarding his youth may further be obscured by popular myths from later ages, making it difficult for historians to separate them.[1]
It is generally agreed that Mehmed-paša was born into an Orthodox Serb family in the hamlet of Sokolovići, near modern-day Rudo,[2] around 1506. Said to have come from a modest shepherd family,[3] Mehmed-paša's surname presumably derives from his place of birth. Other sources allege that the Sokolović family was descended from feudal Bosnian nobility[citation needed]. However, this was a common myth regarding the pre-eminent families of the time. Research into the roots of Ottoman Bosnia's aristocratic families seems to discredit this thesis.[2]
Mehmed-paša's birth name was probably Bajica,[1][3] while his father was named Dimitrije.[2] He had two brothers and a sister, as well as at least one uncle.[2] However, details about his family and relations are disputed on two major counts. One is his relationship to Makarije Sokolović. Traditionally identified as his brother, today some historians consider him to have been either a nephew or distant relative.[1][2] The second is the matter of Mehmed-paša's uncle. By some accounts, his uncle was a monk at the Mileševa monastery who had his two nephews, Bajica and Makarije (taken to be brothers according to this view), educated there.[1] On the other hand, alternative sources suggest that his only uncle converted to Islam early.[2]
In 1516, an Ottoman expedition that set out to recruit Christian children as part of the devshirmeh system reached Sokolovići. According to folklore, Bajica was either simply taken from his father's home or, due to a reputation as a gifted child, specifically requested for by the commanding Ješildže Mehmed-beg. The story further holds that his uncle unsuccessfully appealed to the authorities, even offering vast sums of gold for the child's return.[1]
[edit] Janissary education
In Istanbul, the young conscript converted to Islam and received the name Mehmed.
Mehmed's education was to be chosen next. The Chief Eunuch split the young Janissaries into two different groups. Mehmed was sent with the first group which was sent at once to the Imperial Quarters. His education was split into three phases:
- In the first, Mehmed shared a room with his fellow companions, where they studied together reading, writing and Islam taught by high-skilled teachers.
- In the second, he learned Turkish, Arabic, Persian, and also Latin, as well as martial skills such as archery, spear-throwing, manual labour and gymnastics. This part of the education lasted for four years.
- In the third phase, Mehmed had to repeat all of his former studies. There, he was also taught to work for the government.
As proclaimed in Baghdad on 13 March 1535, Mehmed was sent to be one of the seven servents of the Imperial Treasurer Iskander-çelebi. Iskander died very soon after, so Mehmed returned to the Imperial Court. In the court men like him were needed - as he was a man of great skill and knowledge - speaking fluently Church Slavonic, Persian, Arabic, Venetian-Italian and Neo-Latin. There, he started his career.
[edit] Career
Sokolović first became an Imperial Chamberlain and then the head of the Sultan's squires. Throughout these offices, he became very close to Sultan Suleyman and learned from him.
As a young soldier, Sokolović excelled in the Battle of Mohács and the Siege of Vienna. In 1546, the old High Admiral of the fleet, captain-pasha Heiradin Barbarossa died - and Mehmed was given his post. He commandeered the young imperial navy and subsequently built up it's almost non-existent arsenal. For full 5 years did Mehmed serve as the Ottoman Empire's Captain-pasha.
Mehmed became the Governor-General (beglerbeg) of Rumelia in 1551, seated in Sophia. While he was visiting the area where he was born, his mother recognized him by the birthmark on his face and once again embraced her child after more than thirty years. A civil war was tearing apart the faltering Kingdom of Hungary, and the Habsburg Emperor had laid claims to Transylvania - which was controlled by the Ottomans. The Sultan ordered Mehmed to move immediately to Hungary. Mehmed Sokolović assembled an Army of 90,000 soldiers and 54 cannons and subsequently embarked for Hungary. Mehmed also mustered the Pashas of Smederevo, Vidin and Nicopolis. His forces reached Slankamen in Srem. A Transylvanian viceroy, Monk Đorđe Utješenović, begged Mehmed not to attack Transylvania, claiming that it loyal to the Ottoman Emperor. All peace conferences were decisively refused by Mehmed, so Mehmed led the Ottoman forces forwards and they soon captured Bečej, Bečkerek, Csanád, Linova, as well as 12 more cities - proceeding to Transylvania. Đorđe Utješenović responded by raising a rebellion in Transylvania - mustering one soldier from every household. Governor-General Mehmed had to fall back and once again laid siege on Temišvar on 14 October with the main part of his army and 50 cannons. Mehmed asked the City's commander to surrender, but he replied with a recommendation for Mehmed's return to Rumelia. According to folklore, Mehmed then said:
- Prije će, dakle, laki jelen u vazduhu pasti
- I more gole ribe na obali ostaviti.
Mehmed's forces besieged the city up to 28 October, but couldn't seize it - so he fell back to Belgrade, where he continued the peace negotiations with Monk-Viceroy Đorđe Utješenović. Đorđe was assassinated on 17 December 1551 and all peace talks ended. This made Mehmed renew his military attempt in 1552, during which he not only seized Temišvar, but also Hollakö, Bujak, Ságh, Gürmath, the whole of Banat and Szolnak. Mehmed's forces then joined with that of Ahmet-pasha advancing towards Eger. Mehmed's army assembled on the Hill of Egid, but the Ottomans could not take the City itself.
In 1553, despite the losses in Europe to the west, Sultan Suleyman declared war on Persia. He dispatched Mehmet Sokollu to spent the winter in Tokata in 1553/1554 to take charge over the war against Persia. In June 1554, Mehmed's Army joined that of the Sultan in the field near Ssuschehri. Sokollu achieved a reputation for heroism on the battlefields.
[edit] Vizier
[edit] Third Vizier
The Sultan was impressed by Mehmed, do he awarded him the seat of Vizier. Mehmed Sokolović became the Third Vizier of the Ottoman Empire in 1555. His seat of the General-Guvernor of Rumelia was given to a Herzegovinian Janissary aga – Pertev-pasha; Mehmed's old companion while they served for Iskander-çelebi.
Immediately after Mehmed assumed the position of a Vizier, he had to quell a rebellion around Thessalonika. The rebellion was raised by Mustafa-beg, the Sultan's son who the Sultan had previously executed. Mustafa raised the rebellion against his father in revenge. Mehmed Sokolović took 4,000 horsemen and 3,000 Janissaries and quelled the rebellion. Mustafa-beg was hanged.
Mehmed-pasha's brother, Topuzli-Makarije was an Iguman of the Serb Chilandar monastery on Athos. Makarije Sokolović payed a visit to his brother's Palace in Istanbul in 1557. Mehmed discussed with his brother the possibilities of renewing the Serbian Orthodox Church. Later that same year, Vizier Mehmed-pasha issued an edict (Ferman) declaring the restoration of the Peć Patriarchate with Makarije Sokolović as Patriarch Makarije I. The edict also guaranteed the rights and religious freedom of all inhabitants of the Ottoman Empire, as well as brought the deceison to atend to all of the peoples' complains to the state.
Numerous changes in the authoroties happened. The former Grand Vizier – Ahmed-pasha was deposed and hanged. He was replaced by Rustem-pasha Opuković, who hade numerous enemies. Lala-Mustafa was one of them. Lala-Mustafa had made the Sultan's second son, Bayezid, the Viceroy of Karamania, to raise a rebellion against his brother Selim the Sot – who was to inherit the Imperial Throne instead of Bayezid. Mehmed Sokolović mustered an Army and went to Konia, where he defeated Bayezid's forces decisively in May 1559. Bayezid fled to Persia. Mehmed remained in Asia and spent the winter negotiating with the Persian Shah regarding Bayezid's extradition. After long negotiations, the Shah extradited Bayezid and his four sons, who were subsequently executed.
[edit] Second Vizier
The Grand Vizier Rustem-pasha died in 1561. His post was given to the Second Vizier – Semiz-Ali-pasha of Prača. Mehmed in turn became the Second Vizier, while Mehmed's post was asserted by Pertev-pasha from Herzegovina.
Mehmed married Sultan Suleyman's granddaughter – Prince Selim II's daughter, Ismihan, on 17 August 1562. Mehmed spent the followering years in peace, governing and administrating the realm. Even his wife, Ismihan became jelous of Mehmed's fame.
In 1564, Mehmed's nephew, Mustafa-beg Sokolović, became Viceroy of Bosnia.
[edit] Grand Vizier
Mehmed would not be fully satisfied until he gained the highest position within the Ottoman Empire – the seat of Grand Vizier. In June 1565, Grand Vizier Semiz-Ali-pasha died. Prince Selim II, had much confidence to his son-in-law, so he granted him that position. The Ottoman Empire under Mehmet Sokollu ranged from the Caucas and the Caspian sea to the Atlas Mountains in Africa and from the Hungarian capital of Budim to Baghdad.
At the end of 1565 and the beginning of 1566, tensions between Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian II and Sultan Suleyman grew. Maximilian wanted the cities previously taken by Gazi-Hassan-pasha Predojević restored. All negotiations failed, so Emperor Maximilian declared war on the Ottoman Empire. Grand Vizier Mehmet Sokollu immediately ordered his nephew, Mustafa-beg Sokolović of Bosnia to advance against Maximilian. Mustafa managed to capture the cities of Krupa and Dvor na Uni. Sultan Selim II immediately declared war against the Holy Roman Empire and Grand Vizier Mehmed immediately started the preparations for their army. Mehmed went in front, preparinf for the Sultan's arrival, who was leading the main part of the Ottoman forces. After 50 days, they arrived in Belgrade.
After passing through Zemun, one part of the army crossed Varadin and struck Egar, proceeding to Vienna. Croatian-Hungarian nobleman Nikola Zrinni had defeated sanjak-beg Tirhal Mohammed, executing him and his son and stealing 17,000 ducats of his. This incurred the Sultan's wrath, so he dispatched Mehmet's forces to besiege Szigetvár/Siget. The Sultan was resting in Harsang in the meantime. Budim's commander, Arslan-pasha lost the cities of Palota, Vesprim and Tata. The Sultan was furious, so he sent a platoon of 15 troopers led by one of his finest commanders to bring him Arslan-pasha's head. It turned out that Arlsan left his forces three days ago and was on his way to the Sultan already. The Sultan showed to Mehmed a letter in which Arslan insulted Mehmet openly. On 3 August, Arslan reported to Mehmed's tent with 15 heavily armed horsemen. Mehmed Sokolović criticized Arslan-pasha for his poor actions, accused him for treason and officially deposed Arslan-pasha from his post. Mehmed gave Arslan's office in Budim to the Bosnian Governor-General, Mustafa-beg Sokolović. The Sultan finally arrived with Mehmed-pasha's sons, Kurt-beg and Hassan-beg, to Pécs/Pečuj. Finally, the large Ottoman force laid assault on Siget. The vast Ottoman Army numbered 90,000 soldiers and 300 cannons. Siget finelly fell after a long siege – but both Nikola Zrinni and Sultan Suleyman the Magnificent lost their lives in the battle.
Mehmed-pasha Sokolović had all witnesses to the Sultan's death executed, and claimed that Suleyman was too sick to perform his duties and that he would be healing in Szigetvár/Siget, while Mehmed would be temporarily replace him. Mehmed awarded all those who were involved in the capture of Siget and raised the soldiers' wages greatly. He sent a part of the army to capture Bobovac. The Tartars, unfortunately, spread the news of the Sultan's death; and so did Mustafa-beg Sokolović write to Prince Selim about his father's death. Selim II marched immediately towards Srem. Upon his arrival in Vukovar, Mehmed-pasha informed him through a letter that it would be best if he went to Belgrade to greet his army for a more formal and effective take-over of the Empire. Selim fell back to Belgrade and Mehmed ordered the Army in the name of deceased Suleyman to march towards Belgrade. 40 days after the Sultan's death, in October the same year, the Army embarked for Belgrade. On the fourth station on the path to Belgrade, 48 days after Suleyman's death, Mehmed-pasha announced the Sultan's death ceremonially, during the traditional reading of the Koran. Mehmed had Suleyman's body enbalmed and encouraged the Army to proceed to meet the new Sultan in Belgrade. After three marches, the Army arrived to Mitrovica. Mehmed reminded Selim II to send gifts to the Viziers, Pashas and the Army, but Selim's advisors convinced the new Sultan not to do so. Mehmed-pasha Sokolović came to Belgrade and accepted Selim II as his Sultan, keeping the position of Grand Vizier.
Two years after Selim's accession, Mehmed-pasha succeeded in concluding at Constantinople an honourable treaty with Emperor Maximilian II, whereby the emperor agreed to pay an annual "present" of 30,000 ducats (February 17, 1568).
Grand Vizier Mehmed-pasha had expected a mutiny amongst the military ranks, so he immediately had Suleyman's body sent to Istanbul to restore order amongst the Janissaries and other officials who now demanded more rewards as a compensations for their previous efforts. Sultan Selim II immediately hailed a council while he was still in Belgrade, as even his closest officials were openly mocking him. He was convinced by Grand Vizier Mehmed-pasha that Mehmed will handle everything. Mehmed immediately dispatched gifts amongst the military ranks, rewording them handsomly and re-assuring their loyalty.
On the 5th day of their stay in Belgrade, Mehmed went with the Army, the Sultan and other officials for Istanbul. Before they managed to return to the Empire's capital, a mutiny broke out and the road to the city was blocked. Mehmed-pasha and Ahmed-pasha had to bribe their way into the city. Order was restored after Mehmed convinced the unexperienced Sultan to promise to send handsome gifts and higher wages to the Janissaries. The next morning, each Janissary was given standard 40 ducats and additional 20 more as a gift. Soon, other ranks of the military demanded higher wages – Spachies and mercaneries. Mehmed arrested and replaced their Agas at once, finally stopping all dissident factions.
Mehmed-pasha had little success against Russia, and the first encounter between the Ottoman Empire and her future northern rival gave presage of the disaster to come. A plan had been devised at Constantinople for connecting the Volga and Don by a canal, and in the summer of 1569 a large force of Janissaries and Cavalry were sent to lay siege to Astrakhan and begin the canal works, while an Ottoman fleet besieged Azov. However, a sortie of the garrison of Astrakhan drove back the besiegers; a 15,000 Russian relief army attacked and scattered the workmen and the Tatar force sent for their protection; and, finally, the Ottoman fleet was destroyed by a storm. Early in 1570 the ambassadors of Ivan the Terrible concluded at Constantinople a treaty which restored friendly relations between the Sultan and the tsar.
Sultan Selim II was a very weak ruler, so Grand Vizier Mehmed-pasha Sokollu had all the real power in the administration, thanks to the reforms of Selim's predecessor, Suleyman the Magnificent. Although the government was weakening, Mehmed-pasha managed to expand the borders of the Ottoman Empire greatly. In 1570 He dispatched Sinan-pasha, an Ottoman convert of Serbian origin to conquer Arabia. Sinan-pasha solemnly declared the reign of Sultan Selim II in Mecca upon the finishing of his military campaign in Hejaz and Yemen.
In the period of 1571-1572, architect Sinan built the Sokollu Mosque - a small, but delightful Ottoman monument by the old Roman hippodrome by the order Mehmed's wife, Ismihan. [1]. (photos)
One example of naval expansions in the reign of Mehmed-pasha is the conquest of Cyprus in 1571 from Venetia. Goverency over Cyprus was given to Mehmed's old friend, the Arab Ahmed-pasha. This led to a Venetian-Spanish-Maltese coalition led by the heroic Don Juan of Austria that defeated the Ottoman fleet in the Battle of Lepanto in September the same year. Mehmed, however, supplied the Fleet's High Admiral with all the necessary material and succeeded in restoring the empire's shattered fleets.
In July 1572, the Ottoman Fleet numbered already 250 fully-equipped warships. The Ottoman Empire was at war with the Holy Alliance of the Republic of Venetia, the Kingdom of Spain and the Papacy. Mehmed-pasha managed to sign peace treaties with Spain and Venetia, as well as lengthen for 8 more years the peace treaty with Austria. In the meantime, he also maintained good relations with France, Poland and Russia. Mehmed-pasha prepared for a fresh attack on Venetia, when the Sultan's death on 12 December 1574 cut short his plans.
Mehmed-pasha's wealth reached its peak around 1573. The worth of his personal property (cash, goods, accounts, objects) amassed 18,000,000 ducats. Mehmed-pasha had the standard Grand Vizier's wage of 20 ducats every day. His wealth increased greatly thanks to the gifts and taxes of Ottoman officials: anyone who became a Vizier in the Porte had to pay Mehmed-pasha 50,000-60,000 ducats and every Governor-General had to pay 15,000-20,000 or even sometimes 30,000-40,000 ducats upon assending to office. Pasha Mohammed of Cairo dispatched 100,000 ducats to the Grand Vizier every year alone.
On 30 August 1574, Grand Vizier Mehmed-pasha Sokollu implaced his nephew as the new Orthodox Christian Achepiscope of Ochryd. Mehmed-pasha's nephew, Antonije Sokolović, was the Orthodox Christian Metropolitan of Hum. On 23 October the same year, upon Peć Patriarch Makarije's death, Antonije became the new Serbian Orthodox Christian Patriarch of Peć. Antonije died soon, in 1575, and was replaced by yet another nephew of Mehmed-pasha Sokollu – Gerasim Sokolović.
Mehmed-pasha Sokolović again hid the Sultan's death until the Selim's oldest son, Murad arrived from Magnesium. Mehmed-pasha bowed to the new Sultan, Murad III, remaining Grand Vizier of the Porte. Mehmed had to share his power with the Sultan's mother, a Venetian noblewoman from the House of Baffo. Sultan Murad III was fed up with the Grand Vizier's dominance within the Empire, so Mehmed-pasha's power in the Porte began to rapidly drop.
Mehmed-pasha Sokollu was involved in the Polish Crown's succession disputes in 1576 and 1577, but this did not reach greater measures.
Mehmed-pasha Sokolović has signed numerous treaties of friendship with Venetia, Florence, Spain, England and Switzerland. He also managed to force numerous European states to pay taxes to him. Austria payed 9,000 ducats; Transylvania 3,000; Wallachia 7,000; Moldavia 3,000; and eventually even Venetia had to pay him 4,000 ducats annually. This altogether gave him an annual income of 31,000 ducats in gold.
Sultan Murad III began to limit Sokolovic's unlimited powers by slowly removing his men from high offices. Sokolovic was known to have an opposition to a war with Iran which started in 1578. The state secretary, Feridun, Sokolovic's veteran from the assault on Siget, was sent to Belgrade, away from Istanbul. Mehmed-pasha's faithful Arab friend, Governor-General of Cyprus was lynched by dissident soldiers. Sokollu's greatest rivals, Hamid-efendia and Pijale-pasha had soon executed the Grand Vizier's protector, Michael Cantakuzines. Suddenly, on 10 October 1578, Mehmed-pasha's nephew, Governor-General of Budim, Mustafa-beg Sokolović, was assassinated. On 10 October 1579, Mehmed-pasha marked the date by having his servant Hassan-beg read him the Battle of Kossovo. The next day, on 11 October, a mentally unstable dervish demanded to see the Grand Vizier. Mehmed-pasha allowed the dervish to enter his quarters, only to see the dervish taking out a hidden knife from his dress. The dervish stabbed the Grand Vizier with that knife, wounding him mortally. After three hours, Mehmed-pasha Sokollu died. The government was informed of his death by the Venetian viceroy the next morning, on 12 October. Many conspiracy theories were produced after this event.
Compared to other Ottoman rulers, Mehmed was calm and pacifist in external affairs. He preferred strategic moves to brutal ones; He conquered only strategic points like Cyprus and Rhodes. He started grand works on Suez Canal and Volga-Don Canal; if his dreams had came true, Renaissance, Colonization, Europe and Russia would have been highly affected. After his death, the religious freedom which he gave to the inhabitants of the Ottoman Empire was re-guaranteed.
[edit] Heritage and legacy
Mehmed-pasha is remembered among South Slavic peoples for his architectural endowments in the area. He renewed the Serbian Orthodox Church in the Peć Patriarchate during his tenure as third vizier and member of the imperial council in 1557 and instantiated his brother Makarije Sokolović, as a Patriarch of Serbia.
His most renowned endowment is an eleven-arched bridge in his home town Višegrad. Building and history of the Višegrad bridge is the topic of the well-known book by Ivo Andrić - The Bridge on the Drina, for which he was awarded the Nobel Prize for literary achievements. His life also interested Meša Selimović. There were numerous Serbian legends on the bridge's construction. According to one, Mehmed-pasha built the bridge in his son's name. Another is present through Ivo Andrić's "Bridge on the Drina". It tells the tale of Rade the Architect who built the bridge.
In his native village of Sokolovići he has built a mosque, meqteb, musafirhana and plumbing; today, only the plumbing remains. His foundations are spread over Edirne, Halep, Medina, Bečkerek, Belgrade and alongside Bosnia, where he is especially remembered for his bridges. Mecca and Istanbul contained numerous mosques alone. Apart from the Višegrad bridge, Arslanagić bridge in Trebinje, Vizier's bridge in Podgorica, the bridge on Žepa and Kozja ćuprija in Sarajevo are attributed to his name. Between Višegrad and Sarajevo, on Glasinac, he built a Road of four paces and a castle. Of the castle, only a drinking-fountain remained – the Mehmed Sokolović's han.
Every summer in the palace in Istanbul, Mehmed-pasha prepared the choire's performations.
Mehmed-pasha's life became the subject of numerous Serbian and Islamic legends, poems and tales.
| Preceded by: ' |
Commander of the Imperial Squires 1543–1546 |
Succeeded by: ' |
| Preceded by: Heyradine Barbarossa |
High Admiral of the Fleet 1546–1551 |
Succeeded by: ' |
| Preceded by: ' |
Governor-General of Rumelia 1551–1555 |
Succeeded by: Pertev-pasha |
| Preceded by: ' |
Third Vizier of the Porte 1555–1561 |
Succeeded by: ' |
| Preceded by: Semiz-Ali-pasha |
Second Vizier of the Porte 1561–1565 |
Succeeded by: Pertev-pasha |
| Preceded by: Semiz-Ali-pasha |
Grand Vizier of the Porte 1565–1579 |
Succeeded by: ' |
[edit] Notes
- ↑ Some sources alternatively claim he was born in the hamlet of Ravanci near Sokolovići instead.
[edit] References
- ^ a b c d e f Kočan, Ismet (Dec. 21, 2005). Mit i stvarnost - Mehmed-paša Sokolović. Večernje Novosti Online.
- ^ a b c d e f g h Imamović, Mustafa (1996). Historija Bošnjaka. Sarajevo: BZK Preporod. ISBN 9958-815-00-1
- ^ a b Samarčić, Radovan (2004). Sokollu Mehmet Paşa (3rd edition). Istanbul: Aralik. ISBN 975882362-0
4. Знаменити Срби Мусломани (pdf) - Famous Serbs Muslims by Milenko. M. Vukićević, 1906, Belgrade, Davidović new Printing Press
[edit] General references
- This article incorporates text from the Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition, a publication now in the public domain.
