Ma Chung-ying

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Ma Chung-Ying (Ma Zhongying 马仲英) was Hui (Chinese Muslim) leader and a warlord of the Gansu province during the 1930s period. Ma Zhongying attempted to expand his territory into southern Xinjiang by launching campaigns from his power base in Gansu, but was eventually defeated by Xinjiang warlord Sheng Shicai in 1934.

Contents 1 The rise of Ma Chung-ying as a leader 1.1 The general political environment in Xinjiang during 1930s decade 2 Ma Chung-ying returns to the scene 3 Rise and fall of the Turkish-Islamic Republic of Eastern Turkestan 4 Ma Zhongying in former-USSR

[edit] The rise of Ma Chung-ying as a leader

In addition to the Russians, Jin Shuren also had problems with his Muslim subjects. In general, he was very intolerant of their religious traditions and did a number of things to openly antagonize them. The final straw came when he annexed the Kumul Khanate, a small semi autonomous state lying within the borders of Xinjiang, in 1930. The newly-subjected Kumulliks had their land expropriated by the government in order that it could be given to Chinese settlers.

Rebellion broke out in April 1931 and many Chinese were massacred by the local population; the uprising threatened to spread throughout the entire province. Another element entered into the situation as the Uyghur leaders of the revolt appealed for help to Ma Zhongying, a warlord in the Gansu province. Ma's troops marched to Kumul and laid siege to the government forces in the garrison there. Although he won victories elsewhere in the area, Ma was unable to capture the city and, when he was wounded in October, he had to withdraw his forces back to Gansu, thus temporarily leaving the Xinjiang Muslims to fight alone against Jin.

Although the Soviets were not directly involved in these events, it is interesting to note that the government forces included a number of White Russian troops who had taken refuge in Xinjiang after the Russian Civil War. However, Soviet economic influence in the province continued to grow and the Soviet-Sinkiang Trading Company, known as "Sovsintorg", established as a result of a trade agreement between Jin Shuren and the Soviets in October 1931, further helped this process. At the time, trade with the Soviet Union amounted to eighty percent of the provincial total, while China and British India only made up fifteen and five percent, respectively. "Leaning towards Russia was the only means by which the province could survive....Jin Shuren's behaviour towards Russia, justified or otherwise, doubtlessly established a precedent for Sheng Shih-ts'ai to follow."

Ma's retreat semed to indicate that Jin Shuren had successfully quelled the uprising at Kumul, but the tensions continued to brew below the surface,the rebels in the north continued to operate, albeit in a subdued fashion, and the potential for a full-scale revolt began to spread to other parts of Xinjiang. In particular, "rumours and reports from the rebellious north-east continued to flood into the oases of the Tarim Basin in southern Xinjiang, inflaming anti-Chinese feeling amongst an indigenous population already indignant at the imposition of increased taxes and forced issue of huge quantities of unbacked paper currency to pay for Jin Shuren's war effort."

At the same time, Jin Shuren had chosen to seek revenge on the Xinjiang Mongols for not joining him in suppressing the Kumul rebellion by murdering their regent and "Living Buddha" Tsetsen Puntsag Gegeen, in May 1932. Soon after, in July, Jin Shuren's forces began joint operations with Soviet forces in the border regions to put down insurgency amongst the Kirghiz. Several months later, Ma Fu-ming, a Hui general formerly in the employ of the government, sided with the rebels still operating in the north of the province, as a result of which Muslim rebellion in the northeast became centered in the Turfan Depression, located midway between Urumchi and Kumul. Isolated uprisings also began to occur in the south. With more and more of Jin Shuren's subjects alienated by his repressive measures, the stage was set for wide-spread rebellion.

[edit] The general political environment in Xinjiang during 1930s decade

The insurgency that had been simmering in the northeast began to spread and gain momentum. During the winter of 1932–1933, beginning with the capture of key cities in the Turfan Depression, the rebels advanced southward to Kashgar, gradually bringing more and more area under their control, as local residents joined their forces. At the same time, in the south, the Muslim population began to actively revolt against the government. Here, where Islam was stronger, the religious nature of the revolt came to the forefront. Simultaneously, rebels approached Kashgar from both the north and the south roads. The city fell in May 1933, thus terminating government control in the south of the province.

However, a power struggle soon emerged in the rebel forces between the Huis, Chinese-speaking Muslims under the leadership of Ma Chan-ts'ang, and the Turkic Muslims. At the same time, there were also factions amongst the Turkic Muslims. Anarchy reigned throughout much of the area, as different leaders attempted to seize power; bloodshed was widespread, as rival groups fought each other, captured and executed their opponents, and ambushed and massacred each other's forces. Kashgar was initially controlled by the Uighur Temur and the Kirghiz Osman Ali, while in Khotan, a self-styled Khotan Islamic Government was set up under the Amir Muhammad Amin Bughra and his associates. In this environment, Hui control of the area waned and that of the Khotan Amirs grew. As a result of continuous fighting between the Huis, Kirghiz, and Uighurs, morale in Kashgar plummeted. Temur was killed, Osman Ali fled, and, in the political vacuum that was left, the Khotan Amirs emerged as the undisputed rulers in southern Xinjiang in October 1933.

While all this was happening in the south, other developments were taking place in the north. In particular, a new figure had appeared on the scene who was destined to play a key role in Xinjiang for most of the rest of the Republican era: Sheng Shicai. Sheng Shicai was a well-trained military man who had first come to Xinjiang during the winter of 1929–1930. Beginning as Chief of Staff of the Xinjiang Frontier Army, he was promoted in 1932 to Provincial Commander-in-Chief. An ambitious man, he did not have to wait long to move into a position of unqualified power in Xinjiang. His opportunity came with the re-emergence of the Huis in the province.

Despite the fact that Ma Zhongying had withdrawn to Gansu, Hui forces loyal to him had remained in Xinjiang. During the winter of 1932–1933, at the same time that the Muslim rebels were moving towards Kashgar, these forces, under the leadership of Ma Shih-ming, supplemented by troops loyal to Ma Fu-ming, the government general who had defected, began to advance on Urumchi. They reached the city, the gates of which had been already closed, in February 1933. Fierce fighting broke out and the city was only saved by the valiant defense of the White Russian troops and the subsequent arrival of Sheng Shicai's forces. "The final death toll was probably in excess of 6,000 Chinese and Muslims." The rebels withdrew to the surrounding countryside as Sheng's prestige grew.

Sheng Shicai's strength was further reinforced by the arrival in March of the Kuomintang's North-East National Salvation Army via the Soviet Union. Apparently, the Soviets, concerned about the possible victory of the Muslims over Jin Shuren's weakened regime, were willing to accommodate the Chinese in this matter. Meanwhile, Jin Shuren's corrupt and incompetant administration of Xinjiang had continued to alienate not only the native population, but also those he relied on for the maintenance of his power. The matter came to a head when the White Russians carried out a successful coup in April 1933, forcing him to flee over the Soviet border. "Sheng Shih-ts'ai, who protested that he was 'only a common soldier' (but who enjoyed the full backing of both the White Russians and the North-East National Salvation Army), was confirmed in the all-powerful position of Tupan or Border Defence Commissioner,as de facto ruler of the province."

[edit] Ma Chung-ying returns to the scene

It was now time for Ma Zhongying to re-enter the struggle. During his period of convalescence in Gansu, he had amassed a large army through extensive conscription,as well as being appointed as Commanding Officer of the 36th Division of the National Army of China by the Kuomintang government in Nanjing. This "highly ambitious young warlord, who was to dream, in his wilder moments, of creating a Muslim empire which would include the whole of Soviet, as well as China, Central Asia, "began his march in May 1933. Kumul was easily taken, as well as other towns en route to the provincial capital. Sheng Shicai's forces were forced to retreat to Urumchi. Ground was alternatively gained and lost by both sides.

Throughout the whole conflict, it was uncertain which side had the backing of Nanjing, since both claimed allegiance to the Kuomintang. Huang Mu-sung, a "Pacification Commissioner" from the Republican government soon arrived in Urumchi on an ostensible peace mission. Sheng Shicai suspected him of conspiring with some of his opponents to overthrow him. As a result, he executed three leaders of the provincial government, accusing them of plotting his overthrow with Huang. At the same time, Sheng Shicai also forced Huang to wire Nanjing with a recommendation that he be recognized as the official Tupan of Xinjiang.

Sheng Shicai's problems at this time were not all in the north, however. As Hui armies marched on Urumchi from both sides, Ma Zhongying's forces having been joined by those of Chang P'ei-yüan, the military governor of Ili, potentially more significant events were taking place in southern Xinjiang. The Khotan Amirs were not content merely to control most of the south; their eventual goal was the establishment of an independent Muslim state.

[edit] Rise and fall of the Turkish-Islamic Republic of Eastern Turkestan

They had attempted to do so first in September 1933, after wooing Khoja Niyas Hajji, a leader in the Kumul uprising who had initially agreed to recognize Sheng Shicai's administration, with the offer of presidency of the "Republic of Eastern Turkestan." However, this republic was a state in name only and Khoja was reported to be negotiating with the Soviets, an unacceptable proposition for the Amirs, so in November of the same year they declared the establishment of the "Turkish-Islamic Republic of Eastern Turkestan" (TIRET). "The domestic policy of the TIRET was... directed towards the establishment of a radical Islamic system, based on the Shari'a (Islamic law) but encompassing certain educational, economic and social reforms, whilst its foreign policy was as staunchly anti-Soviet as it was anti-Hui and anti-Han."

The government was led by the Amirs, with Khoja Niyas Hajji as titular President; the capital was at Kashgar. Their authority extended over the southern third of the province and they soon had all the trappings of a legitimate government,including a National Assembly, a legal system, a constitution, a flag, and a national currency. According to the British Consulate-General in Kashgar at the time, the TIRET had five basic policies:

• To form an independent Muslim state.
• To seek freedom from the 'Soviet stranglehold.'
• To restore peace and put down lawlessness.
• To encourage and restore trade.

To seek friendly relations with the British Government and to obtain its aid as far as possible. However, this attempt to establish a lasting Islamic government in the area was to prove to be a failure. Neither Britain nor potential allies in the Muslim world, including Turkey and Afghanistan, were prepared to recognize or support the fledgling republic. Furthermore, "having adopted an uncompromisingly 'Turkic-Islamic' stance, it had deprived itself of effective allies whilst ensuring the enmity of the three most powerful forces in Xinjiang - the Huis,the provincial authorities, and the Soviet Union." It was this last force,whose influence had been limited up to this time, which was now to step firmly into Xinjiang politics.

The TIRET, if allowed to survive, could provide a base of operations for pan-Turkic and pan-Islamic sentiments to spread into Soviet Central Asia.There were also reports of contacts between TIRET officials and representatives of Japan and Nazi Germany.

Inclusive Japanese agents invited at these leaders to enter at Greater East Asian Co-Prosperity Sphere how active member. At the same time,there werefears that Ma Zhongying, ardently anti-Soviet, could be used by the Japanese to set up a puppet regime in Xinjiang, as they had done with "Manchukuo."Any of these developments, especially in light of thegrowing menace that Japan and Germany presented to the USSR, would have posed a serious threat to the Soviets. Thus, an agreement between Sheng and Moscow would be beneficial to both.

In January 1934, Soviet troops crossed the border and attacked rebel positions in the Ili area. Chang P'ei-yüan's forces were defeated and the governor committed suicide. Despite valiant resistance, Ma Zhongying's troops were no match for the superior Soviet military machine, including aerial bombing, and were pushed back from Urumchi.In the south, Khoja Niyas Hajji was wooed away from the TIRET leadership by a Soviet offer of arms.

Having been unable to capture Urumchi, Ma Zhongying now turned south towards Kashgar. In February, "in a development which emphasised the deeply conflicting interests of Turkic-speaking and Chinese-speaking Muslims in southern Xinjiang, the capital of the secessionist TIRET was recaptured for Nanjing not by the provincial forces of Sheng Shih-ts'ai, but by the Hui forces of Ma Chung-ying." At the same time, Khoja Niyas Hajji was negotiating with the Soviets to dissolve the TIRET, in return for receiving the post of "Civil Governor for Life,"under Sheng's administration. Fighting between the Huis and the forces loyal to the Khotan Amirs continued for the next several months, and by July 1934, all the TIRET leaders had been either killed in battle or hanged or had fled to British India. Ma Zhongying, now firmly in control of Kashgar, denounced Sheng Shicai as a Soviet puppet and reaffirmed his allegiance to the Kuomintang government.

However, Ma's bid for British support fell on deaf ears and, in a surprising move, he turned to the Soviets for aid. In a sequence of events which still remains a mystery, he crossed over the Soviet border in July and very little was heard from him again.

[edit] Ma Zhongying in former-USSR

It seems that Ma Zhongying struck a deal with the Soviets and some reports indicate that he may even have been awarded a communist party membership in the former-Soviet Union. Certainly, his presence in the former-USSR was advantageous to the Soviets, for "with Ma Chung-ying safely removed from the political stage in Xinjiang and living in the Soviet Union as 'honoured guest', the Kremlin would retain a card which might be played to great effect against a possibly recalcitrant Sheng Shih-ts'ai, or indeed, should the necessity arise, against a hostile Nanking or an expansionist Japan." In the power vacuum created by the collapse of the TIRET and Ma's departure, provincial forces loyal to Sheng Shicai were able to recapture Kashgar a few weeks later. In September 1934, a truce was signed between the Hui forces and the provincial authorities.

In 1936, when Zhang Guotao's force crossed the Yellow River in attempt to expand the communist base into Xinjiang and thus making a direct connection with the former USSR, Ma Zhongying enlisted in the Red Army and was named as one of the high ranking special advisors to the proposed Soviet force that was planned to take actions in according to Zhang Guotao's force. Ma Zhongying's tasks were to advise Soviets on the situation in Xinjiang and to help Soviet to negotiate with his cousins Ma Bufang, Ma Hongbin and their families so that these warlords would not pressure Zhang Guotao's force too much. However, the Soviet plan did not materalize because Zhang Guotao's force was rapidly annihiated by the Kuomintang forces, and completely collapsed much faster than the Soviet had expected. After that, Ma Zhongying was enrolled in Soviet aviation school to become a pilot.

Very little was heard from Ma Zhongying since 1936, after his enrollment in the Soviet aviation school. There are at least five different versions of Ma Zhongying's end by various sources.

• Some claimed that he was killed in a crash prior to World War II.
• Some claimed that he was executed during the Great Purge of Army in 1937–1938. *Some claimed that he was arrested during the Great Purge but was not executed immediately, and died or disappeared later in exile / jail / labor camp.
• Some claimed like Konstantin Rokossovsky, he was first arrested during the Great Purge but was later released and paricipated in the Great Patriotic War.
• Some claimed he was unscathed during the Great Purge and paricipated in the Great Patriotic War.
• According to Sheng Shicai memoir book " Red failure in Sinkiang",published by Michigan University in 1958,Ma Zhongying

was killed by Stalin together with all his staff in summer 1937, after reappearing of "East Turkestan Republic" in Kashgariya, due to uprising of 6th Uyghur Division in Kashgar(4 of 6 regiments of this division took part in uprising) and joining of Ma Hushan forses(36th Divison) with rebels, that advanced from Khotan to Aksu. Uprising was smashed by Soviet intervention to Aksu area by forces of so called "Kirghiz Brigade" in amount of more than 5000 troops,greatly supported by aviation,making bombardments first from aerodroms, located in USSR itself (Karakol,Alma-ata),then from captured air fields in Uch-Turfan and Kucha.Total list of eliminated rebel forces included about 8,000 uyghur troops and 6,000 hui troops.At the same time all 400 students, previously sent by Sinkiang government for studying to Tashkent (mostly uyghur) were arrested and killed in one night.These events sparked the Great Purge in Soviet Central Asian Republics, that then spread all over the USSR.