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The Grand Duchy of Lithuania (Lithuanian: Lietuvos Didžioji Kunigaikštystė, Belarusian: Вялі́кае Кня́ства Літо́ўскае, Ukrainian: Велике Князівство Литовське, Polish: Wielkie Księstwo Litewskie) was an Eastern European state of the 12th^[1] /13th century untill the18th century. Founded by Lithuanians, one of the pagan Baltic tribes, whose initial lands extended in northeast part of Lithuania Aukštaitija. ^[2][3] Later on territory expanded beyond the boundaries of the initial area, acquiring large parts of former Kievan Rus. Grand Duchy of Lithuania covered the territory of present-day Lithuania, Belarus, Ukraine, Transnistria and parts of Poland and Russia during the period of its greatest extent in the 15th century and was the largest state in Europe.^[4]

Consolidation of Lithuanian lands started in the 12th century, as marked by extensive raids of Lithuanians towards wealthy cities such as Novgorod and Pskov. Lithuanians plundered territories of other Baltic tribes as well. The 13th century signified begining of the wars with Teutonic Knights, Livonian Order and rise of Mindaugas, who was crowned as King of Lithuania in 1253.

The title Grand Duchy to Lithuania was consistently applied from the 14th century on,^[5] multi-ethnic and multi-confessional shape of the state emerged only at late reign of Gediminas.^[6] Gediminas not only continued to expanding state lands, but also tried to neutralize Christians military orders by diplomatic means negotiating with Holy See. During his reign state capital became Vilnius in 1323. After death of Gediminas and short reign of Jaunutis, Grand Duke title captured Algirdas, but shared his power with Kęstutis. Algirdas continued his father’s policy in East, trying to gain more influence in Slavic regions, which lead to military conflicts with Moscow. ^[7]

Algirdas` successor was Jogaila and according to Krewo agreement, which was signed in 1386, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania made a personal union with the Kingdom of Poland as Grand Duke of Lithuania Jogaila married Queen Jadwiga.Jogaila started Christianization of Lithuania in 1387, which marked conversion of Lithuanians, last pagans in Europe, ^[8] to the Catholic faith. Soon afterwards supreme power in Grand Duchy of Lithuania was acquired by Vytautas the Great. Vytautas lead army of Grand Duchy of Lithuania into the Battle of Grunwald in 1410, which signified downfall of the Teutonic Order. After Vytautas death, relationship with Kingdom of Poland greatly deterioated. In 1432 internal fights erupted as two pretenders, Švitrigaila and Žygimantas Kęstutaitis, rivaled for the throne. Žygimantas Kęstutaitis emerged as victorious after the Battle of Pabaiskas.^[9]

After assassination of Drand Duke Žygimantas Kęstutaitis noblemen of Grand Duchy of Lithuania tried to break the personal union with Kingdom of Poland ^[10] and only unsuccessful wars with Muscovy forced to revive the union, despite the opposition from some noble families like Radvilos. Several attempts were made to restore and strengthen broken union ties in the 16th century, but only under the Lublin Union in 1569, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania federated into the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. In this federation, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania had a separate government, laws, army, and treasury.^[11] Death of Sigismund II Augustus, who mediated creation of Liublin Union, marked an end of Gediminids era, which representatives ruled Lithuania from the late 13th century.

During Commonwealth times, Grand Duchy of Lithuania was involved in continues and new wars, like Livonian War, Northern War and others. Despite military gains and loses cultural life flourished in Grand Duchy of Lithuania, signified by opening of Vilnius University, increased publishing of books, construction of new palaces and churches.

Union with Kingdom of Poland did not prevent from territorial loses of the state to the rising Muscovy power and finnaly in 1795, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth was destroyed by the partitions among Imperial Russia, Prussia and Austria.

Contents 1 Establishment of the state 1.1 Rise to power 1.2 Rise of Mindaugas 2 Expansion 3 Vytenis and Gediminas 4 Algirdas and Kęstutis 5 Military 6 Notes and References

[edit] Establishment of the state

[edit] Rise to power

The first written reference to Lithuania is found in the Quedlinburg Chronicle, which dates from 1009. ^[12] This contemporary account mentions little of the state or its social structure, except that Lithuania bordered Rus and that there were active pagans in the region. ^[13]

References to Lithuania appear and in Slavic chronicles, as one of the areas that the Ruthenians attacked; apparently their initial raid was unsuccessful, but Ruthenian dukes continued to mount forays into Lithuanian territory. Pagan Lithuanians in the early 12th century paid tribute to Polatsk, including the Semigallians, the Curonians and the Lettigallians. In 1131 Lithuania suffered a major attack by Mstislav of Kiev. However, as Mstislav's army was returning home, laden with plunder, Lithuanians were able to beat the regiments, which had lagged behind the main Mstislav's army. It was not a major victory to Lithuanians, but it did indicate that Lithuania was gaining strength.

During this time Lithuanians usually acted as part of one or another Ruthenian dukes’ allies and apparently did not initiated full scale attacks by themselves towards Ruthianian provinces. At some point between 1180 and 1183 the situation began to change, and the Lithuanians started to organize sustainable military raids on the Slavic provinces, raiding the Polatsk duchy as well as Pskov, and even threatening to Novgorod. ^[14] After a successful Lithuanian raid of Livonia in 1185, the local inhabitants built several castles in the region, trying to protect population. From the 12th century on, the Lithuanians represented a real threat to the western neighbours and missions as well as to their Slavic neighbors.^[14]

Sudden spark of military raids marked state consolidation process of Lithuanian lands confederation around twelfth century in Aukštaitija (Upper Lithuania), ^[15] possibly by the end of the 12th century Grand Duchy of Lithuania was already formed in these lands. ^[1]

The year 1202 marked another development that galvanized the formation of the state - the establishment of a Christian militia, the Livonian Order, which posed a significant threat to pagan powers in the region. This threat was reinforced by the formation of other rivals, such as the Halych-Volhynia and Teutonic Order, established in 1226. Eventually the most important signs of mutual cooperation and consolidation between Lithuanians and Samogitians of southeastern Lithuania, was the treaty with Halych-Volhynia of 1219. It is the earliest documented evidence of cooperation among a large group of Lithuanian dukes. This treaty lists 21 Lithuanian dukes among its signatories, including five senior Lithuanian dukes from Aukštaitija – Živinbudas, Daujotas, Vilikaila, Dausprungas and Mindaugas. Probably Živinbudas was the superior among others^[14] and at least senior Lithuanian dukes were ralated with each other by one family ties. ^[16] The treaty was also signed by dukes from Samogitia, which shows increasing levels of cooperation among the Lithuanians. Although they had battled in the past, the Lithuanians and the Samogitians spoke a similar dialect and now faced a common enemy. ^[17] The formal acknowledgment of common interests, and the establishment of a hierarchy among the participants of the treaty, foreshadows the emergence of a the state.

Mindaugas, one of the mentioned senior dukes, upraise Lithuania among Western European states during later years.

---

Motto: Visos Rusios zemes turi priklausyti Lietuviams

Latin: Omni Russia ad Lituanos debet simplidter pertinere

[edit] Rise of Mindaugas

Mindaugas, duke ^[18] of southern Lithuania ^[19] was menioned in Halych-Volhynia agreemnet as senior, but he did not had a highest power in Lithuania then, eventually he became sovereign ruler. Mindaugas was mentioned as the ruler of the whole Lithuania in Livonian Rhymed Chronicle in 1236.^[20] How he managed to acquire supreme power in Lithuania is not exactly known, Slavic chronicles mentions that he used to murder or expel various dukes, including his relatives. ^[21] After securing power in Lithuania, Mindaugas turned his sight towars Slavic provinces and regions, annexing Navahradak, Hrodna and other places, which were regarded as part of Rus. These regions became in Mindaugas possession somewhere between 1239 - 1248. ^[20] After acquiring several Black Ruthenia provices Mindaugas appointed his son Vaišvilkas to rule them, who aparantly greatly supprest local population. ^[22] Important event took place in 1236, which had impact in whole region. Army led by Samogitian ruler Vykintas won Battle of the Sun, inflicting catastrophic outcome to Livonian Order, which never regained its full power and was forced to become a branch of the Teutonic Knights. That meant that Samogitia became the main target of both orders, because only this land prevented them from physical union. Battle outcome provided short break in wars with Knights and Lithuania exploited this situation arranging attacks towards Ruthenian provinces.

Around 1248 Mindaugas sent his nephews Tautvilas and Edivydas and Vykintas to conquer Smolensk. But they were unsuccessful. Most likey due to this unsuccessful campaign, Mindaugas tried to seize their lands and the defeated dukes had to flee from Lithuania. Soon afterwards three men formed a powerful coalition with the Livonian Order, Daniel of Halych, Vasilko of Volhynia and partially with Samogitians against Mindaugas, war was inevitable.

Dukes of Halych and Volhynia managed to get control over Black Ruthenia, lands which were ruled by Vaišvilkas. Tautvilas, seeking support from Knights, went to Riga. Where he was baptized by the Archbishop and received military support. Soon afterwards Order organized two big raids, one to Nalša land and the other to Mindaugas domain and parts of Samogitia, that still supported him.^[23] Mindaugas facing extremely difficult position managed to take advantage of Livonian Order and Archbishop of Riga conflicts - he bribed Andreas von Stierland, the master of the Order, who was still angry on Vykintas for the defeat in 1236.^[23] Andreas von Stierland agreed to support Mindaugas and promised help, but he also rised condition, that pagan Mindaugas must take Catholic faith. Mindaugas agreed to baptize and also give to the Order some lands in the western part of Lithuania for the Royal crown in return. He alongside with wife and sons was baptize in Catholic rite in 1251. On July 17, 1251 Pope Innocent IV issued an papal bull procalining Lithuania as Kingdom and the state was placed under the jurisdiction of the Bishop of Rome.

In 1252, Tautvilas and the remaining allies attacked Mindaugas in Voruta. The attack failed and the allies had to defend themselves in Tver Castle. After Vykintas death Tautvilas was forced to go back to Daniel of Halych. These develpments signified collapse of coalition and Daniel with Tautvilas reconciled with Mindaugas soon afterwards . When the fights were finished, there were no obstacles to Mindaugas hold his royal crown and in 1253 he was crowned as the King of Lithuania most likely in Vilnius, where Mindaugas had his court and newly built Cathedral. ^[24]

Pope Innocent IV supported Mindaugas, because he hoped the new Catholic state could stop the raids of Mongols-Tatars.^[20] To strengthen Christianity in the state there was appointed Bishop of Lithuania, firstly was introduced Dominican Vito and in 1254, Christian. However, as later events showed, Lithuanians were not prepared to accept Christianity.

During later years Mindaugas tried to expand his influence in the Polatsk, a major center of commerce in the Daugava River basin, and Pinsk.^[20] He also conducted peace with Halych-Volhynia, and arrange marrage between his daugther and Svarn, son of Daniel of Volhynia and future ruler of Lithuania. In 1255, Mindaugas got permission from Pope Alexander IV to crown one of his sons as King of Lithuania.

Teutonic Order used this period to strengthen it`s position in parts of Samogitia and Livonia lands also, but in 1259 Order lost the Battle of Skuodas and the Battle of Durbe in 1260. The later one encouraged the Prussians, conquered by the Order, to rebel against the Knights. Encouraged by Treniota, his nephew, Mindaugas broke the peace with the Order, took the Samogitions under his own jurisdiction again and tried to use situation among rebelling Baltic tribes to his favor. Chronicles mentions that he also relapsed into his old beliefs.

Mindaugas made a deal with Alexander Nevsky of Novgorod and marched against the Order. Treniota led the army to Cēsis and against Masovia hoping to encourage conquered Baltic tribes to rebel against the Knights. Nevertheless campaign not reached its goal in the end and relationships between Mindaugas and Treniota deteriorated, who together with Daumantas assassinated Mindaugas and his two sons, Ruklys and Rupeikis in 1263. ^[25]

State lapsed into years of internal fights.

[edit] Expansion

After Mindaugas death, Treniota took over the title of Grand Duke. However, his power was fragile and less than a year later, in 1264 he was killed by Mindaugas` son Vaišvilkas and his ally from Volhynia, Svarn. Daumantas ran away to Pskov, was baptized as Timofei and ruled there successfully in 1266-1299. Vaišvilkas, once fierce pagan who later became devoted Orthodox, after three years or rule transferred Grand Duke title to Svarn. Unstable political situation in Lithuania resulted lack support to the rebelling Balts, which were initially supported by Mindaugas and Treniota, thus Baltic rebellion slowly began to calm down.

Svarn took power in 1267, it is likely that he was unable to take control of the entire Lithuania and ruled only southern parts.^[20] At the same time Vaišvilkas was killed by Lev Danylovich, brother of Svarn, who was angry on Vaišvilkas, because he did not transferred supreme power to rule Lithuania for him.

In 1268 Pope Clement IV issued papal bull, which granted permission to King of Bohemia Ottokar II resurrect Kingdom of Lithuania. In the same year King and soldiers from Bohemia, Austria, through Poland, arrived in Prussia and preparations for the assault on Lithuania started, but due to the bad weather campaign did not occur. After one year Svarn was removed from the throne by pagan Traidenis, ilustrious Duke of Kernavė.^[25]

Traidenis began to wage war with Halych-Volhynia in 1274-1276 and he emerged as victorious, finally conquering Black Ruthenia. Traidenis was also successful in fighting with the Livonian Order. In 1270 he won Battle of Karuse, fought on ice near Saaremaa. In 1279 the Order attacked Lithuanian lands and even reached Traidenis` main seat in Kernavė, but on the way back they suffered a great defeat in the Battle of Aizkraukle. After the battle, Semigallians rebelled and acknowledged Lithuania's superiority.^[20] Traidenis wage several more campaigns but in 1282 he died.

There is uncerntainty who were the Grand Dukes of Lithuania after Traidenis' death. In 1285, chronicles mention Daumantas as Grand Duke. He attacked Tver and was severely wounded or even killed.^[20] The first Gediminid to rule Lithuania was Butigeidis, who died in 1290 or 1292, and his brother and sub-monarch Butvydas (also known as Pukuveras) inherited the crown. Butvydas was father of Vytenis and Gediminas. He died in 1296, leaving the throne to Vytenis.

[edit] Vytenis and Gediminas

"You made and pronounce decision over Somogitian [Lower land] lands, which are our inheritance and our fatherland, from lawful ancestors and antecedents heirdom. And even now we hold it in our possession; it is and always will be one and the same - land of Lithuania, because there are same language and same people. As Samogitian land is lower when Lithuania land, for this reason it called Samogitia, because in Lithuanian language lowland is called in this way. While lowlanders Lithuania calls as Aukštaitija [Upper land], because from lowland it is as upper land. Lowlanders from ancient times calls themselves as Lithuanians, but never as Samogitians and for this sameness we do not write about Samogitia, because all is the same, one land and same people."

Vytautas the Great Letter to Emperor of Holy Roman Empire Sigismund [26]

Vytenis was the first ruler from the Gediminids dynasty who ruled Lithuania for considerably long time. ^[27] Vytenis was mentioned as king and overlord of Lithuania in 1296. Under his reign the construction of castles network alongside Nemunas begun in end of the 13th century. Gradually this network of castles developed into the main outpost and defensive structures against Teutonic Order.

Vytenis reign was signified constant warfare with the surrounding neighborhood lands, particularly with Order, Kingdom of Poland, Ruthenian provinces. In 1295 army led by Vytenis plundered Poland lands, these attacks on Poland lands continued untill 1306. At the 13th century Kingdom of Poland had existed only in the hearts and memories of various Polish noblemen as these years witnessed disintegration of the Kingdom. Vytenis used this situation to his state needs and later on he supported Polish pretender to the Kingdom`s throne. Vytenis also intervened and into Duchy of Masovia affairs, as duke of Masovia Boleslaw II has been married to Lithuanian princes Gaudemunda.

In the late 13th century conflict between Riga citizens and Teutonic Knights arose and Vytenis offered an aid to citizens of city by sending Lithuanian garrison to them in 1298. Lithuanian garrison had duty to protect city from Knights and Lithuanians remained in the city until 1313. ^[28] Securing positions in Riga provided fordable situation to strengthen trade routes in the region and organize military campaigns towards Teutonic Order and Ruthenian provinces. Between 1298 and 1313 Vytenis arranged around eleven military campaigns into Prussian lands controlled by Order, inflicting series of defeats to the foe. ^[29] Around 1307, Polatsk was annexed by military force. ^[30] Annexation of Polatsk lead to securing important trade route which enabled consistent trade in the region and also increased Lithuania`s influence on remaining Ruthenian provinces.

Vytenis arranged several more military raids into lands ruled by Teutonic Order till 1315 and for the last time he went into contemporary writing sources at the end of 1315. Further faith of Vytenis is unknown; nevertheless Grand Duke title passed to his brother Gediminas,^[31] the sub-monarch raining in Samogitia and probobly in Trakai while Vytenis was still a live. As sovereign ruler Gediminas exchanged Trakai seat to Vilnius.^{[32] [33]}

Around 1316 Gediminas taken supreme power in state after his, brother, Vytenis, death. His rign as Grand Duke ^[34]from 1316-1341 marked____________

Gediminas also constructed castles and Catholic churches in Vilnius, he initiated building projects and in other cities. After issuing so called Letters of Gediminas Grand Duke invited squires, merchants, doctors, smiths, wheelwrights, cobblers, skinners, millers, and others to come to the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and practice their trade and faith without any restrictions.

[edit] Algirdas and Kęstutis

When Gediminas was slain, his son Algirdas suppressed the monasteries, but Algirdas’s son, Jogaila, again made overtures to the Teutonic Order and concluded a secret treaty with them. His uncle Kęstutis took him prisoner and a civil war ensued. Kęstutis was eventually captured, imprisoned and put to death, but Kęstutis's son Vytautas escaped.

[edit] Military

Tuo metu lietuviai taip viešpatavo šiuose kraštuose: Rusioje, Livonijoje ir Estijoje, gyvenančioms gentims, tiek krikščionių, tiek pagonių, kad retas kas drįsdavo gyventi savo kaimeliuose, o labiausiai nedrįsdavo latviai. Jie, palikę namus apleistus, visada ieškojo tamsių miško slėptuvių, bet ir taip negalėdavo nuo jų išsigelbėti, nes lietuviai, visą laiką jų tykodami miškuose, juos sugaudavo ir vienus nužudydavo, kitus, paimtus į nelaisvę, išvesdavo į savo žemę ir visą turtą iš jų atimdavo. Bėgo rusėnai miškais ir kaimais nuo lietuvių, net nuo nedaugelio, kaip bėga kiškiai nuo medžiotojo, o lyviai ir latviai klusniai lietuviams tarnavo, davė maistą ir pašarą, kaip avys be ganytojo patekusios į vilkų gaują (išverst) (Henricus de Lettis)

[edit] Notes and References

1. ^ ^{a b} T. Baranauskas. Lietuvos valstybės ištakos. Vilnius, 2000
2. ^ Rowell S.C. Lithuania Ascending a pagan empire within east-central Europe, 1295-1345. Cambridge, 1994. p.289-290
3. ^ Ch.Allmand. The New Cambridge Medieval History. Cambridge, 1998 p. 731.
4. ^ Robert Bideleux. A History of Eastern Europe: Crisis and Change. Routledge, 1998. p.122
5. ^ E. Bojtár. Foreward to the Past: A Cultural History of the Baltic People. Central European University Press, 1999 p. 179
6. ^ Lithuania Ascending p.289.
7. ^ Z. Kiaupa. Algirdas ir LDK rytų politika. Gimtoji istorija 2: Nuo 7 iki 12 klasės (Lietuvos istorijos vadovėlis). CD. (2003). Elektroninės leidybos namai: Vilnius.
8. ^ N. Davies. Europe: A History. Oxford, 1996 p.392
9. ^ J. Kiaupienė. Gediminaičiai ir Jogailaičiai prie Vytauto palikimo. Gimtoji istorija 2: Nuo 7 iki 12 klasės (Lietuvos istorijos vadovėlis). CD. (2003). Elektroninės leidybos namai: Vilnius.
10. ^ J. Kiaupienë Valdžios krizës pabaiga ir Kazimieras Jogailaitis. Gimtoji istorija 2: Nuo 7 iki 12 klasės (Lietuvos istorijos vadovėlis). CD. (2003). Elektroninės leidybos namai: Vilnius.
11. ^ Stone, Daniel. The Polish-Lithuanian state: 1386-1795. University of Washington Press , 2001. p. 63
12. ^ Encarta.Lithuania. Accessed September 21, 2006.
13. ^ Quedlinburg Chronicle relates the tragic fate of the mission of St. Bruno of Querfurt: St. Bruno, an archbishop and monk, who was called Boniface, was struck in the head by Pagans during the 11th year of his conversion at the Rus and Lithuania border, and along with 18 of his followers, entered heaven on March 9th. Boniface's mission had been organised by King Boleslaw I the Brave, who was attempting to extend his influence into Prussian lands.
14. ^ ^{a b c} Encyclopedia Lituanica. Boston, 1970-1978, Vol.5 p.395
15. ^ Samogitia (Lower Lithuania) is another historical region of Lithuania
16. ^ A.Bumblauskas. Senosios Lietuvos istorija, 1009 - 1795 (The Early History of Lithuania).Vilnius, 2005, p.33
17. ^ Lithuania Ascending p.50
18. ^ By contemporary, Lithuanians their early rulers called kunigas (singular); kunigai (plural), the word, which was borrowed from German language – kuning, konig. Kunigas had a meaning of overlord and king. Later on kunigas had been changed by the word kunigaikštis, which is applied to medieval Lithuania rulers till present day, while kunigas has another meaning today.
19. ^ Z.Kiaupa, J. Kiaupienė, A. Kunevičius. The History of Lithuania Before 1795. Vilnius,2000. p. 43-127
20. ^ ^{a b c d e f g} V. Spečiūnas. Lietuvos valdovai (XIII-XVIII a.): enciklopedinis žinynas. Vilnius, 2004. p. 15-78.
21. ^ Mindaugas rise to power was decribed in chnonicale as follows: was a duke in the Lithuanian land, and he killed his brothers and his brothers' sons and banished others from the land and began to rule alone over the entire Lithuanian land. And he started to put on airs and enjoyed glory and might and would not put up with any opposition
22. ^ As noted in Hypatian Chronicle, Vaišvilkas ordered to kill 4 local people each day.
23. ^ ^{a b} B. Butkevičienė, V. Gricius. Mindaugas – Lietuvos karalius. Accessed September 29, 2006.
24. ^ Lithuania Ascending p.71
25. ^ ^{a b} Senosios Lietuvos istorija p. 44-45
26. ^ (Latin) [very old manuscript]
27. ^ Lithuania Ascending p.55
28. ^ M. Jones. The New Cambridge Medieval History. Cambridge, p.706
29. ^ Lithuania Ascending p.57
30. ^ New Cambrige p.706
31. ^ A. Nikžentaitis. Gediminas. Vilnius, 1989, p.23
32. ^ Lithuania Ascending p.72
33. ^ Gediminas p.16
34. ^ By contemporary Gediminas had and these titles: initially King of Lithuanians, later King of Lithuanians and many Ruthenians//TSRp.45. In his famous letters, his title was by the grace of God, Lithuanians and Ruthenians king, prince and duke of Zemgalia