Lipan Apache

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Lipan Apache are a Southern Athabascan (Apachean) people that were located in Texas in at least as early as the first half of the 18th century. Present-day Lipans mostly live with the Mescalero on the Mescalero Reservation in New Mexico — others live in Texas.

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[edit] Synonymy

The Lipan are also known as Nde buffalo hunters, Eastern Apache, Apache de los Llanos, Lipan, Ipande, Ypandes, Ipandes, Ipandi, Lipanes, Lipanos, Lipanis, Lipaines, Lapane, Lapanne, Lapanas, Lipau, Lipaw, Apaches Lipan, Apacheria Lipana, and Lipanes Llaneros. The first recorded name is Ypandis (in 1732).

[edit] Subdivisions

The Cuelgahen Nde Lipan Apache of Texas comprise the descendants of the Tall Grass People known as Lipan Apache — Apache following Chiefs Cuelga de Castro, John Castro, and Ramon Castro.

[edit] History

The Lipan are first mentioned in Spanish record in 1718 when they attacked San Antonio. It seems likely that the Lipan became established in Texas during the latter half of the 17th century. They moved southward during the 18th century where in one Spanish mission was built in Coahuila in 1754 and other on the San Sabá River in 1757. Both missions were burned and deserted. At this time their territory ranged from the Colorado River to the Rio Grande. Two Lipan local group chiefs had a total of 700 people in 1762. Since there were at least 12 other local groups, Morris Opler estimates that the population was approximately 3,000-4,000. He estimates a total of 6,000 in 1700.

The Spanish and Lipan frequently were in conflict as Spain tried to invade and colonize the Texas territory. The Spanish tried to thwart the Lipan through alcohol, provoking conflict between the Lipan and Mescalero, making them economically dependent on Spanish trade goods, and through missionaries. It is not certain if the Lipan actually lived on the Spanish missions, but by 1767 all Lipan had completely deserted them. In the same year, Marqués de Rubí started a policy of Lipan extermination as in 1764 a smallpox epidemic had decimated the tribe. However, a little afterwards the Lipan entered an uneasy alliance with Spain in order to war against the Mescalero. The alliance fell apart before 1800.

Another serious enemy of the Lipan was the Comanche, who incidentally was also an enemy of Spain. Many historians cite Comanche aggression as a factor leading to the Lipan's southernly migration. Although this is perhaps partly true, Apachean peoples were already on southern migration patterns before significant Comanche conflict in Texas and New Mexico. At the beginning of the 19th century the Lipan formed an alliance with the Comanche to attack the Spanish. Following the murder of Comanche men in 1822, the alliance was dissolved, and the Lipan fled south of the Mexico border.

[edit] Language

Lipan Apache is also a Southern Athabaskan language spoken by Meredith Begay, Ted Rodriguez, and others on the Mescalero Apache Reservation. The general consensus of the Lipan Apache Committee on the same reservation is that linguistic and anthropological considerations of their cultural extinction are mistaken and incorrect.

[edit] See also

[edit] External links

[edit] Bibliography

  • Dunn, William E. Apache relations in Texas, 1717-1750. Texas State Historical Association Quarterly, 14.
  • Dunn, William E. Missionary activities among the eastern Apaches previous to the founding of the San Sabá missions. Texas State Historical Association Quarterly, 15.
  • Dunn, William E. The Apache mission on the San Sabá River, its founding and its failure. Texas State Historical Association Quarterly, 16.
  • Opler, Morris E. (1936). The kinship systems of the southern Athabaskan-speaking tribes. American Anthropologist, 38, 620-633.
  • Opler, Morris E. (1938). The use of peyote by the Carrizo and the Lipan Apache. American Anthropologist, 40 (2).
  • Opler, Morris E. (1940). Myths and legends of the Lipan Apache. Memoirs of the American Folk-Lore Society (Vol. 36). New York: American Folk-Lore Society, J. J. Augustin Publisher.
  • Opler, Morris E. (1959). Component, assemblage, and theme in cultural integration and differentiation. American Anthropologist, 61 (6), 955-964.
  • Opler, Morris E. (1968). Remuneration to supernaturals and man in Apachean ceremonialism. Ethnology, 7 (4), 356-393.
  • Opler, Morris E. (1975). Problems in Apachean cultural history, with special reference to the Lipan Apache. Anthropological Quarterly, 48 (3), 182-192.
  • Opler, Morris E. (2001). Lipan Apache. In Handbook of North American Indians: The Plains (pp. 941-952). Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution.
  • Opler, Morris E; & Bittle, William E. (1961). The death practices and escahatology of the Kiowa Apache. Southwestern Journal of Anthropology, 17 (4), 383-394.

[edit] Language

  • Breuninger, Evelyn; Hugar, Elbys; Lathan, Ellen Ann; & Rushforth, Scott. (1982). Mescalero Apache dictionary. Mescalero, NM: Mescalero Apache Tribe.
  • Gatschet, Albert S. [1884]. Lipan words, phrases, and sentences. (Unpublished manuscript No. 81, Bureau of American Ethnology Archives, Smithsonian Institution).
  • Gatschet, Albert S. [1885]. Lipan words, clans, and stories. (Unpublished manuscript No. 114, Bureau of American Ethnology Archives, Smithsonian Institution).
  • Goddard, Pliny E. [1906]. Lipan texts. (Unpublished manuscript in Archives of Traditional Music, Indiana University, Bloomington.)
  • Hoijer, Harry. (n.d.). Lipan texts. (Available from the American Philosophical Society, Chicago.) (Unpublished field notes, includes handwritten transcription and typed versions, 4 texts, one text published as Hoijer 1975).
  • Hoijer, Harry. (1938). The southern Athapaskan languages. American Anthropologist, 40 (1), 75-87.
  • Hoijer, Harry. (1942). Phonetic and phonemic change in the Athapaskan languages. Language, 18 (3), 218-220.
  • Hoijer, Harry. (1945). The Apachean verb, part I: Verb structure and pronominal prefixes. International Journal of American Linguistics, 11 (4), 193-203.
  • Hoijer, Harry. (1946). The Apachean verb, part II: The prefixes for mode and tense. International Journal of American Linguistics, 12 (1), 1-13.
  • Hoijer, Harry. (1946). The Apachean verb, part III: The classifiers. International Journal of American Linguistics, 12 (2), 51-59.
  • Hoijer, Harry. (1948). Linguistic and cultural change. Language, 24 (4), 335-345.
  • Hoijer, Harry. (1956). Athapaskan kinship systems. American Anthropologist, 58 (2), 309-333.
  • Hoijer, Harry. (1956). The chronology of the Athapaskan languages. International Journal of American Linguistics, 22 (4), 219-232.
  • Hoijer, Harry. (1975). The history and customs of the Lipan, as told by Augustina Zuazua. Linguistics: An international review, 161, 5-37.
  • Jung, Dagmar. (2000). “Word Order in Apache Narratives.” In The Athabaskan Languages. (Eds. Fernald, Theodore and Platero, Paul). Oxford: Oxford UP. 92-100.
  • Opler, Morris E. (1936). The kinship systems of the southern Athabaskan-speaking tribes. American Anthropologist, 38, 620-633.
  • Webster, Anthony. (1999). "Lisandro Mendez’s ‘Coyote and Deer’: On narrative structures, reciprocity, and interactions.” American Indian Quarterly. 23(1): 1-24.
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