Kitsune

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Kitsune (狐, Kitsune^?)(Pronunciation) (help·info)), or foxes, are prominent creatures in Japanese folklore, where they are considered sapient beings. Folk tales hold that they possess great magical abilities, which increase with their age and wisdom, including the ability to assume human form. While some stories speak of kitsune employing this ability to trick others — as foxes in folklore often do — others portray them in a more favorable light as faithful guardians, friends, lovers, and wives.

According to the Nihon Ryakki, one of the oldest surviving Japanese books of records, in ancient Japan, foxes lived in close proximity to humans, giving rise to many legends.^[1] Kitsune became closely associated with the Shinto kami, or spirit, Inari, serving as his messengers, which reinforced the fox's supernatural significance.^[2]

Kitsune may possess multiple tails, numbering as many as nine. A larger number of tails usually indicates an older, wiser, and more powerful kitsune. The potential power and influence of kitsune is such that offerings are sometimes made to them as to a deity.

Contents 1 Origins of fox myths 1.1 Etymology 2 Characteristics 2.1 Supernatural abilities 2.2 Kitsunetsuki 3 Portrayal 3.1 Servants of Inari 3.2 Tricksters 3.3 Wives and lovers 3.4 Star balls 3.5 In fiction 4 Other meanings 5 Notes 6 References 7 External links

[edit] Origins of fox myths

It is a matter of debate whether the kitsune myths originate entirely from China or are in part an indigenous Japanese concept dating perhaps as far back as the fifth century B.C. Chinese folklore contains fox spirits similar to kitsune, including the possibility of nine tails. Likewise, Korean folklore's kumiho (nine-tail fox) is a mythical fox that has lived for a thousand years. While differences exist — for instance, unlike the kitsune, the kumiho is always depicted as evil — some scholars, such as Ugo A. Casal, suggest that these similarities show that fox-related myths spread from Indian sources such as the Hitopadesa to China and Korea, and ultimately to Japan.^[3]

Japanese folklorist Kiyoshi Nozaki, in contrast, indicates that kitsune were regarded in a positive light as early as the 4th century and suggests that only their less favorable depictions stem from fox myths later imported from China and Korea.^[4] Inari scholar Karen Smyers has noted that the idea of the fox as seductress and the connection of the fox myths to Buddhism were introduced into Japanese folklore through similar Chinese stories, but she also maintains that some fox stories contain elements unique to Japan.^[5]

It is widely agreed that some fox-related myths in Japan can be traced to China, Korea, or India. Many of the earliest surviving kitsune stories are recorded in the Konjaku Monogatari, an 11th century collection of Chinese, Indian, and Japanese narratives.^[6]

[edit] Etymology

According to Nozaki, the origin of the word "kitsune" is an onomotopoeia.^[1] "Kitsu" was said to be the sound of a fox's yelp, much in the way that "woof" is said to be the noise dogs make in the West, and was used as a word meaning fox. "-Ne" signifies an affectionate mood, which Nozaki presents as further evidence for an established, non-imported tradition of benevolent foxes in folklore.^[4] Kitsu is now archaic; in modern Japanese the sound of a fox is transcribed as "kon kon" or "gon gon."

One of the oldest surviving kitsune tales provides a folk etymology of the word kitsune. This etymology is acknowledged as false, but it remains widely known.^[7] This story is an exception to the norm in that it does not end tragically:^[8][9]

Ono, an inhabitant of Mino (says an ancient Japanese legend of A.D. 545), spent the seasons longing for his ideal of female beauty. He met her one evening on a vast moor and married her. Simultaneously with the birth of their son, Ono's dog was delivered of a pup which as it grew up became more and more hostile to the lady of the moors. She begged her husband to kill it, but he refused. At last one day the dog attacked her so furiously that she lost courage, resumed vulpine shape, leaped over a fence and fled.

"You may be a fox," Ono called after her, "but you are the mother of my son and I love you. Come back when you please; you will always be welcome."

So every evening she stole back and slept in his arms.^[7]

Because the fox returns to her husband each night in the shape of a woman, leaving again each morning in the shape of a fox, she comes to be called Kitsune. In classical Japanese, "kitsu-ne" means "come and sleep," while "ki-tsune" means "always comes."^[10]

[edit] Characteristics

Kitsune are a type of yōkai, or spiritual entity, and the word kitsune is often translated as fox spirit. However, this does not mean that a kitsune is a ghost, nor that, within the context of folklore, a kitsune is a creature different from a fox. Because the word spirit is used to reflect a state of knowledge or enlightenment, all foxes who live for a sufficiently long time may gain supernatural abilities.^[5]

There are two common classifications of kitsune. The myobu, or celestial foxes associated with Inari (sometimes simply called Inari foxes) are presented as benevolent, while the nogitsune, or wild foxes (literally field foxes) tend to be depicted as mischievous or even malicious.^[11] According to some beliefs, kitsune can be further classified by type; such beliefs vary according to local tradition.^[11] One common method adds a third category of ninko, a fox which is an invisible spirit and is perceived only when it possesses humans; another classifies kitsune according to their supernatural powers.^[12]

The physical attribute kitsune are most noted for is their possession of as many as nine tails.^[13] Generally, a greater number of tails indicates an older and more powerful fox, and some sources say that a fox will only grow additional tails after it has lived for a thousand years.^[14] The foxes that appear in folk stories almost always possess one, five, or nine tails, rather than any other intermediate number.

When a kitsune gains its ninth tail, its fur becomes white or gold.^[13] These kyūbi no kitsune (nine-tailed foxes) gain the power of infinite vision, the ability to see (and hear) anything happening anywhere in the world. Occasionally, they are attributed infinite wisdom, essentially omniscience.^[15]

[edit] Supernatural abilities

Kitsune are believed to possess great intelligence, long life, and magical powers. Foremost among these is the ability to take on human form, which a fox learns to do once it attains a certain age — usually a hundred years, though some tales say fifty.^[14] The placement of reeds, a broad leaf, or a skull over the fox's head is a common prerequisite of this transformation.^[16] Kitsune typically appear in the shape of a beautiful woman, a young girl, or an elderly man. The shape a fox assumes is not limited by its actual age or gender; male foxes have been known to take female form, and old foxes to appear young.^[5] They can also duplicate the appearance of a specific person.^[17]

In some stories, kitsune have difficulty hiding their tail when they take human form.^[18] The observant protagonist sees through the fox's disguise when the drunken or careless fox allows its tail to show.

Looking for the fox's tail is one common method of attempting to discern the true nature of the kitsune, but some sources speak of others. Variants on the theme feature the kitsune retaining other foxlike traits, such as a coating of fine hair over much of its body. A shapeshifted kitsune may cast the shadow of a fox rather than of a human, or its reflection might be that of a fox.^[19] Kitsune have a great fear and hatred of dogs, even while in human form, and some become so rattled by the presence of a dog that they will revert to the shape of a fox and flee. Finally, a particularly devout individual may be able to see through the fox's disguise.^[20]

Supernatural abilities commonly attributed to the kitsune include, in addition to shapeshifting, possession, the generation of fire or lightning from their tails or the ability to breathe fire (known as kitsune-bi, literally fox-fire), manifestation in dreams, flight, the ability to become invisible, and the creation illusions so elaborate as to be almost indistinguishable from reality.^[19][16]

Some tales speak of kitsune with even greater power, able to bend time and space, drive people mad, or take such fantastic shapes as a tree of incredible height or a second moon in the sky.^[21][22] Occasionally kitsune are ascribed a characteristic reminiscent of vampires or succubi — these kitsune feed on the life or spirit of humans, generally through sexual contact.^[23]

[edit] Kitsunetsuki

Kitsunetsuki (狐憑き or 狐付き; also written kitsune-tsuki) literally means the state of being possessed by a fox. The fox is believed to enter the body of its victim, typically a young woman, beneath her fingernails or through her breasts.^[24] In some cases, the victims' facial expressions are said to change in such a way that they resembled foxes. Japanese tradition holds that fox possession can cause illiterate victims to temporarily gain literacy.^[25]

Folklorist Lafcadio Hearn describes the condition in the first volume of his Glimpses of Unfamiliar Japan:

Strange is the madness of those into whom demon foxes enter. Sometimes they run naked shouting through the streets. Sometimes they lie down and froth at the mouth, and yelp as a fox yelps. And on some part of the body of the possessed a moving lump appears under the skin, which seems to have a life of its own. Prick it with a needle, and it glides instantly to another place. By no grasp can it be so tightly compressed by a strong hand that it will not slip from under the fingers. Possessed folk are also said to speak and write languages of which they were totally ignorant prior to possession. They eat only what foxes are believed to like — tofu, aburage, azukimeshi, etc. — and they eat a great deal, alleging that not they, but the possessing foxes, are hungry.^[26]

He goes on to note that, once freed from the possession, the victim will never again be able to eat tofu, azukimeshi, or other foods favored by foxes.

Exorcism, often performed at an Inari shrine, may induce a fox to leave its possessed host.^[27] In the past, when such gentle measures failed, or a priest was not available, victims of kitsunetsuki were often treated cruelly — beaten or badly burned — in hopes of forcing the fox to leave. On some occasions, entire families were ostracized by their communities after a member of the family was thought to be possessed.^[26]

In Japan, kitsunetsuki was noted as a disease as early as the Heian period and remained a common diagnosis for insanity as recently as the early 20th century.^[28][29] Possession was the explanation for the abnormal behavior displayed by the afflicted individuals. One doctor in the late 19th century noted that physical diseases whose symptoms included a fever were also often considered kitsunetsuki.^[30]

While the belief is less common in the modern day, stories of fox possession are still known to appear in the tabloid press and popular media. One notable occasion involved allegations that members of the Aum Shinrikyo cult had been possessed.^[31]

Kitsunetsuki is also an ethnic psychosis unique to Japanese culture, which causes its victims to believe they are being possessed by a fox.^[32] Some of the symptoms of kitsunetsuki are cravings for rice or sweet red beans, listlessness, restlessness, and an aversion to eye contact. It is similar to, but distinct from, clinical lycanthropy.^[33]

[edit] Portrayal

[edit] Servants of Inari

Kitsune are associated with the deity of rice known as Inari.^[34] Originally kitsune were the messengers of Inari, but the line between the two has now become blurred to the point that Inari is sometimes depicted as a fox, and that there exist shrines dedicated to the kitsune.^[11] There is speculation as to whether, historically, another Shinto deity who is a fox exists; foxes have, however, been worshipped as kami.^[35]

Inari's kitsune are white in color, and white foxes are accordingly considered a good omen.^[11] They possess the power to ward off evil and sometimes serve as guardian spirits. In addition to protecting Inari shrines, they are petitioned to intervene on behalf of the locals, and particularly to aid against troublesome nogitsune. Black foxes and nine-tailed foxes are likewise considered good omens.^[18]

The fox's power over evil is such that, according to beliefs derived from feng shui (fusui in Japanese), a statue of a fox serves to ward off evil kimon, or energy, that flows from the northeast. Many Inari shrines feature such statues, sometimes in great numbers, such as the famous Fushimi Inari shrine in Kyoto, Japan.

Kitsune are connected to the Buddhist religion through the Dakiniten, goddesses conflated with Inari's female aspect. Dakiniten is depicted as a female boddhisattva wielding a sword and riding a flying white fox.^[36]

[edit] Tricksters

In Japanese folklore, the kitsune are often presented as tricksters — sometimes very malevolent ones. The trickster kitsune employ their magical abilities to play tricks on people; those portrayed in a favorable light choose as targets overly-proud samurai, greedy merchants, and boastful commoners, while the more cruel kitsune abuse poor tradesmen and farmers or devout Buddhist monks. For example, kitsune were thought to employ the kitsune-bi or fox-fire they produced to lead travelers astray, in the manner of a will o' the wisp.^[37][38] Other common goals of trickster kitsune include seduction, theft of food, humiliation of the prideful, or vengeance for a perceived slight.

Because kitsune are not always malevolent, and because of their reputation for vengefulness, people would sometimes try to discover whether the fox had a motive for its acts. In one case, Toyotomi Hideyoshi, a high government official, wrote the following letter to the kami Inari:

To Inari Daimyojin,

My lord, I have the honor to inform you that one of the foxes under your jurisdiction has bewitched one of my servants, causing her and others a great deal of trouble. I have to request that you make minute inquiries into the matter, and endeavor to find out the reason of your subject misbehaving in this way, and let me know the result.

If it turns out that the fox has no adequate reason to give for his behavior, you are to arrest and punish him at once. If you hesitate to take action in this matter I shall issue orders for the destruction of every fox in the land. Any other particulars that you may wish to be informed of in reference to what has occurred, you can learn from the high priest of Yoshida.^[39]

Despite their role as tricksters, however, kitsune will keep any promise given and will strive to repay any favor owed. Occasionally a kitsune will attach itself to a person or household. As long as it is treated with respect, it will use its magic for the benefit of its companion or hosts. As yōkai, however, kitsune do not share human morality, and a kitsune who has "adopted" a house in this manner might, for example, bring its host "gifts" of money or items that are in fact stolen from the host's neighbors. Any common household thought to harbor kitsune is therefore treated with suspicion.^[40] Oddly, samurai families were often reputed to share similar arrangements with kitsune, but these foxes were considered myobu and the use of their magic a sign of prestige.^[41]

A distinction is drawn in folklore between kitsune gifts and payments made by kitsune. A payment, or any reward offered by a kitsune that includes money or material wealth, will be partially illusory. Some or all of such a payment will be composed of old paper, leaves, twigs, stones, or similar valueless items.^[42][43] True kitsune gifts are usually intangibles, such as protection, knowledge, or long life.^[43]

[edit] Wives and lovers

Kitsune are commonly portrayed as lovers, usually in stories involving a young human male and a kitsune who takes the form of a woman.^[44] Sometimes the kitsune is assigned the role of seductress, but often these stories are romantic in nature.^[45] Such a story typically involves the young man unknowingly marrying the fox and emphasizes the devotion of the fox-wife. Many of these stories end with the discovery of the fox, who then must leave her husband. In some cases, the husband wakes as if from a dream, finds himself far from home, filthy, and disoriented, and must return to confront his abandoned human family in shame.

Many stories tell of fox-wives bearing children. When such progeny of human-kitsune marriages are human, they are considered to possess special physical or supernatural qualities or both, which are often passed to their children in turn.^[18] The specific nature of these qualities varies widely from one source to another. Among those who are said to have inherited such extraordinary power is the famous onmyoji, or astrologer-magician, Abe no Seimei.^[46]

[edit] Star balls

Kitsune or their possessed victims may be depicted carrying a round or onion-shaped white ball, known as a hoshi no tama or star ball. These balls are described as glowing with kitsune-bi, or fox-fire.^[47] Those who obtain the ball may be able to extract the kitsune's promise to help them in exchange for its return. One belief states that the ball holds a portion of the kitsune's magical power when it changes shape. Another suggests that the pearl represents the kitsune's soul, and that the kitsune will die if separated from it for long.^[48]

These balls are sometimes identified as magical jewels or pearls.^[49] When not in human form or possessing a human, kitsune keep these jewels in their mouths or carry them on their tails.^[14]

A jewel is a common symbol of Inari, and representations of a sacred Inari fox that do not include one are rare.^[50]

[edit] In fiction

Embedded in popular folklore as they are, kitsune have made numerous appearances in Japanese works. They are featured in noh, kyogen, bunraku, and kabuki plays derived from folk tales,^[51][52] as well as in such contemporary works as manga and video games. Western authors of fantasy have also begun to make use of the kitsune legends. While these portrayals vary considerably, kitsune are generally depicted, in accordance with the folk stories, as wise, cunning, and powerful.

Among the most well-known kitsune characters in traditional Japanese theatrical works are:

• Kuzunoha, mother of Abe no Seimei, is featured in the five-part bunraku and kabuki play Ashiya Dōman Ōuchi Kagami (The Mirror of Ashiya Dōman and Ōuchi). The fourth part, Kuzunoha or The Fox of Shinoda, which is frequently performed alone, tells of the discovery of Kuzunoha's kitsune nature and her subsequent departure from her husband and child.^[53][54]

• Tamamo-no-Mae is the subject of the noh drama Sesshoseki (The Death Stone) and of kabuki and kyogen plays both entitled Tamamonomae (The Beautiful Fox Witch). Their stories relate her legend: her evil deeds in India, China, and Japan; her discovery and death; the transformation of her spirit into the "killing stone" of the noh play's title; and her eventual redemption by the Buddhist priest Gennō.^[55][56][57]

• Genkuro is a kitsune remarked for his filial piety. In the bunraku and kabuki drama Yoshitsune Sembon Zakura (Yoshitsune and the Thousand Cherry Trees), he takes the form of Yoshitsune's retainer Satō Tadanobu in order to remain close to a hand-drum made from the skins of his parents, which is owned by Yoshitsune's lover Lady Shizuka. After his identity is revealed, he explains that he hears the voice of his parents when the drum is struck. Yoshitsune and Shizuka make him a gift of the drum, and in return Genkuro grants Yoshitsune magical protection.^[58][59][60]

[edit] Other meanings

• There are Japanese dishes called kitsune udon and kitsune soba, so named because kitsune are said to have a particular fondness for the fried sliced tofu (aburaage) they contain. Similarly, Inari-zushi is a type of sushi containing fried tofu, named for the kami associated with kitsune.^[61]

• In Japan, rain falling from a clear sky — a sun shower — is sometimes called kitsune no yomeiri or "the kitsune's wedding," in reference to a folktale describing a wedding ceremony between the creatures being held during such conditions.^[62] Such a wedding is depicted in a scene from Akira Kurosawa's film Dreams. The event is considered to be a good omen, but the kitsune do not take kindly to uninvited guests and will seek revenge. In parts of Bulgaria, England, Italy, Korea, Malaysia, and Portugal, rain on a sunny day is also called a fox's (or vixen's) wedding.^[63]

• Kitsune-gao or "fox-faced" refers to females who have a narrow face with close-set eyes, thin eyebrows, and high cheekbones. Traditionally, this facial structure is considered attractive.^[64]

• Kitsune-ken ("fox-fist") is a traditional game similar to rock, paper, scissors. Three hand positions signify a fox, a hunter, and a village headman. The headman beats the hunter, who he outranks; the hunter beats the fox, who he shoots; the fox beats the headman, who he bewitches.^[65][66]

[edit] Notes

[edit] References

[edit] External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Kitsune

• The Kitsune Page
• Foxtrot's Guide to Kitsune Lore
• Kitsune.org folklore
• Kitsune, Kumiho, Huli Jing, Fox - Fox spirits in Asia, and Asian fox spirits in the West An extensive bibliography of fox-spirit books.
• Portal of Transformation: Kitsune in Folklore and Mythology

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