Kent State shootings

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John Filo's Pulitzer Prize-winning photograph of Mary Ann Vecchio, a fourteen year-old runaway, kneeling over the dead or dying body of Jeffrey Miller, shot in the mouth by an unknown Ohio National Guardsman. The Vecchio portion of the photograph appeared on the May 18, 1970 cover of Newsweek magazine with the banner, "Nixon's Home Front".[1]
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John Filo's Pulitzer Prize-winning photograph of Mary Ann Vecchio, a fourteen year-old runaway, kneeling over the dead or dying body of Jeffrey Miller, shot in the mouth by an unknown Ohio National Guardsman. The Vecchio portion of the photograph appeared on the May 18, 1970 cover of Newsweek magazine with the banner, "Nixon's Home Front".[1]

The Kent State shootings, also known as May 4 or the Kent State massacre, occurred at Kent State University in the city of Kent, Ohio, and involved the shooting of students by members of the Ohio National Guard on Monday, May 4, 1970. Four students were killed and nine others wounded.

The shooters may have been angered by four days of increasingly agitated demonstrations by members of the student body. The students were protesting the American invasion of Cambodia which President Richard Nixon launched on April 25, and announced in a television address five days later.

There were significant national effects to the shootings; hundreds of universities, colleges, high schools, and even elementary schools closed throughout the United States due to a student strike of eight million students, and the event further divided the country along political lines.

This point was clearly illustrated when President Nixon attempted to justify the shootings with the statement, "This should serve as a grave reminder that when dissent turns to violence, it invites tragedy."

Contents

[edit] Historical Background

Richard Nixon had been elected President in 1968, promising to end the Vietnam War. In November 1969 the My Lai Massacre was exposed, prompting widespread outrage around the world and leading to reduced public support for the war. In addition, the following month saw the first draft lottery instituted since World War II. Since the war had appeared to be winding down throughout 1969, a new invasion into Cambodia angered many people who felt it only exacerbated the conflict.

Many young people, including college students and teachers, were concerned about the risk of being drafted, and the expansion of the war into another country appeared to increase that risk. Across the country, campuses erupted in protests in what Time magazine called "a nation-wide student strike," setting the stage for the events of early May 1970.

[edit] Timeline

[edit] Friday, May 1

At Kent State, a massive demonstration was held on May 1 on the Commons (a grassy area in the center of campus traditionally used as a gathering place for rallies), and another was planned for May 4. There was widespread anger, and many protesters issued a call to "bring the war home."

Trouble erupted around midnight when intoxicated bikers left a bar and began throwing beer bottles at cars and breaking downtown store fronts including a bank window which set off an alarm. The news spread quickly and it resulted in several bars closing early to avoid trouble. Before long more people joined the vandalism and looting, with others remaining as bystanders.

By the time police arrived, a crowd numbering about 100 had already gathered and several people from the crowd had lit a small bonfire in the street. The crowd appeared to be a mix of bikers, students, and out-of town youths who regularly came to Kent's bars. A few members of the crowd began throwing beer bottles at the police, and the crowd began yelling obscenities at them. The disturbance lasted about an hour before the police restored order. By that time most of the bars were closed and the downtown and campus were quiet.

[edit] Saturday, May 2

Kent's Mayor Leroy Satrom declared a state of emergency on May 2 and, later that afternoon, asked Ohio Governor James A. Rhodes to send the National Guard to Kent to help maintain order.

When the National Guard arrived in town that evening, a large demonstration was under way and the campus Reserve Officer Training Corps (ROTC) building was burning. The arsonists were never caught. No one was hurt in the fire because the ROTC building was already boarded up and scheduled for demolition. Over a thousand protesters surrounded the building and cheered the building's burning. While attempting to extinguish the fire, several Kent firemen and police officers were hit with rocks and other objects by those standing near the fire. More than one fire engine company had to be called in because protesters carried the fire hose into the Commons and slashed it.[2][3][4] Again, a call for assistance went out. At 10:00 p.m., the National Guard entered the campus for the first time and set up camp directly on campus. Many arrests were made, tear gas was used, and at least one student was bayoneted.[5]

[edit] Sunday, May 3

By Sunday, May 3, there were nearly a thousand National Guardsmen on campus to control the students.

Some shop owners in Kent said they received anonymous threatening phone calls telling them to post signs in their windows saying "Guard Go Home" and other anti-Guard slogans [citation needed].

During a press conference, Governor Rhodes called the protesters un-American and referred to the protestors as revolutionaries set on destroying higher education in Ohio. "They're worse than the brownshirts and the communist element and also the nightriders and the vigilantes," Rhodes said. "They're the worst type of people that we harbor in America. I think that we're up against the strongest, well-trained, militant, revolutionary group that has ever assembled in America."[6]

He also claimed he would obtain a court order declaring a state of emergency, banning further demonstrations, and gave the impression that a situation akin to martial law had been declared. Although Rhodes didn't declare the state of emergency, which would have made the May 3 and May 4 protests illegal, the students and the National Guard did not know this at the time. [7]

During the day some students came into downtown Kent to help with cleanup efforts after the rioting, which met with mixed reactions from local businessmen. Mayor Satrom, under pressure from frightened citizens, ordered a curfew until further notice.

Around 8:00 p.m., another rally was held on the campus Commons. By 8:45 p.m. the Guard used tear gas to disperse the crowd, and the students reassembled at the intersection of Lincoln and Main Streets, holding a sit-in in the hopes of gaining a meeting with Mayor Satrom and President White. At 11:00 p.m., the Guard announced that a curfew had gone into effect and began forcing the students back to their dorms. A moving battle took place, with 10 Guardsmen injured. [8] In the process, at least one student was bayoneted by the Guard (Eszterhas and Roberts, 121).

[edit] Monday, May 4

On Monday, May 4, a protest was scheduled to be held at noon, as had been planned three days earlier. University officials attempted to ban the gathering, handing out 12,000 leaflets stating that the event was cancelled. Despite this, an estimated 2,000 people gathered on the university's Commons, near Taylor Hall. The protest began with the ringing of the campus's iron victory bell (which had historically been used to signal victories in football games) to signal the beginning of the rally, and the first protester began to speak.

Fearing that the situation might escalate into another violent protest, Companies A and C, 1/145th Infantry and Troop G of the 2/107th Armored Cavalry, Ohio ANG, the units on the campus grounds, attempted to disperse the students. The legality of the dispersal was later debated at a subsequent wrongful death and injury trial. On appeal, the United States Court of Appeals for the Sixth Circuit ruled that authorities did indeed have the right to disperse the crowd.

The dispersal process began late in the morning with a police official, riding in a Guard Jeep, approaching the students to read them an order to disperse or face arrest. The protesters pelted the Jeep with rocks, forcing it to retreat. One Guardsman was injured in the attack.

Just before noon, the Guard returned and again ordered the crowd to disperse. When they refused, the Guard used tear gas. Because of wind, the tear gas had little effect in dispersing the crowd, and some began a second rock attack with chants of "Pigs off campus!" The students also utilized the tear gas canisters and threw them back at the National Guardsmen. The only protection the soldiers had was their steel helmets. They had no body armor or face shields, although they had put on gas masks upon first using tear gas.

When it was obvious the crowd was not going to disperse, the A group of 77 National Guard troops began to advance on the hundreds of protesters with bayonets fixed on their weapons. The guardsmen had had little training in riot control. As the guardsmen advanced, the protestors retreated up and over a hill (Blanket Hill) heading out of The Commons area. Once over the hill, the students, in a loose group, moved northeast along the front of a building (Taylor Hall), with some continuing toward a parking lot in front of another building (Prentice Hall, slightly northeast of and perpendicular to Taylor Hall). The guardsmen pursued the protestors over the hill, but rather than veering left as the protestors had, they continued straight, heading down toward an athletic practice field, where they remained for about ten minutes. During this time, the bulk of the students were off to the left and front of the Guardsmen, approximately 50 to 75 meters away, on the veranda of Taylor Hall. Others were scattered between Taylor Hall and the Prentice Hall parking lot, while still others, perhaps 35 or 40, were standing in the parking lot, or moving away through the lot.

While on the practice field, the guardsmen generally faced the parking lot which was about 100 meters away. At one point some of the guardsmen kneeled and aimed their weapons toward the parking lot, then stood up again. For a few moments several guardsmen formed a loose huddle and appeared to be talking to one another. The guardsmen appeared to be unclear as to what to do next. They had cleared the protestors from The Commons area, and many students had left, but many stayed and were still angrily confronting the soldiers, some throwing rocks and tear gas canisters. At the end of about ten minutes the Guardsmen began to retrace their steps back up the hill toward The Commons area. Some of the students on the Taylor Hall veranda began to move slowly toward the soldiers as the latter passed over the top of the hill and headed back down into The Commons.

At this point, a number of guardsmen at the top of the hill abruptly turned and fired into the students. The guardsmen directed their fire not at the closest students, who were on the Taylor Hall veranda, but at those on the grass area and concrete walkway below the veranda, at those on the service road between the veranda and the parking lot, and at those in the parking lot. Bullets were not sprayed in all directions, but instead were confined to a fairly limited line of fire leading from the top of the hill to the parking lot. Not all the soldiers who fired their weapons directed their fire into the students. Some soldiers fired into the ground while a few fired into the air. In all, 29 of the 77 guardsmen fired their weapons. A total of 67 bullets were fired. The shooting was determined to have lasted only thirteen seconds, although a New York Times reporter stated that "it appeared to go on, as a solid volley, for perhaps a full minute or a little longer." The question of why the shots were fired is widely debated. The Adjutant General of the Ohio National Guard told reporters that a sniper had fired on the guardsmen, which itself remains a debated allegation. Many guardsmen later testified that they were in fear for their lives, which was questioned partly because of the distance of the wounded students. Time magazine later concluded that "triggers were not pulled accidentally at Kent State"—a conclusion also reached by several studies about the tragedy. The President's Commission on Campus Unrest avoided the question of why the shootings happened, but harshly criticized both the protesters and the Guardsmen, concluding that "the indiscriminate firing of rifles into a crowd of students and the deaths that followed were unnecessary, unwarranted, and inexcusable."

The shootings killed four students and wounded nine. Two of the four students killed, Allison Krause and Jeffrey Miller, had participated in the protest, and the other two, Sandra Scheuer and William Schroeder, were walking from one class to the next. Schroeder was also a member of the campus ROTC chapter. Of those wounded, none was closer than 71 feet (22 m) to the guardsmen. Of those killed, the nearest (Miller) was 265 feet (81 m) away.

According to Guard records based on a medical examiner's report, one of the students was struck by a non-military round in the back of the head, though the bullet was never produced as evidence.

[edit] Casualties

Killed (and approximate distance from the National Guard):

Wounded (and approximate distance from the National Guard):

  • Thomas Mark Grace 225 ft (69 m; struck in left ankle)
  • Joseph Lewis 71 ft (22 m; right abdomen and left lower leg)
  • John Cleary 110 ft (34 m; upper left chest)
  • Alan Canfora 225 ft (69 m; right wrist)
  • Dean Kahler 300 ft (91 m; small of back)
  • Douglas Wrentmore 329 ft (100 m; right knee)
  • James Dennis Russell 375 ft (114 m; right thigh and right forehead)
  • Robert Stamps 495 ft (151 m; right buttock)
  • Donald Scott MacKenzie 750 ft (229 m; neck)

Immediately after the shootings, many angry students were ready to launch an all-out attack on the National Guard. Many faculty members, led by geology professor and faculty marshal Glenn Frank, pleaded with the students to leave the Commons and to not give in to violent escalation. After 20 minutes of speaking, the students left the Commons, as ambulance personnel tended to the wounded, and the Guard left the area.

Although initial newspaper reports had inaccurately stated that a number of National Guard members had been killed or seriously injured, only one Guardsman, Lawrence Shafer, was injured seriously enough to require medical treatment, approximately 10 to 15 minutes prior to the shootings.[9].

[edit] Aftermath and long-term effects

Shocking photographs of the dead and wounded at Kent State that were distributed in newspapers and periodicals world-wide amplified sentiment against the United States' invasion of Cambodia and the Vietnam War in general. In particular, the camera of Kent State photojournalism student John Filo captured a fourteen-year old runaway, Mary Ann Vecchio, screaming over the body of the dead or dying student, Jeffrey Miller, who had been shot in the mouth. The photograph, which won a Pulitzer Prize, became the most enduring image of the tragedy (illustration above) and one of the most enduring images of the anti-Vietnam War movement. The shootings led to protests on college campuses throughout the United States, causing hundreds of campuses to close because of both violent and non-violent demonstrations. In particular, the Kent State campus remained closed for six weeks. Just five days after the shootings, 100,000 people demonstrated in Washington, D.C. against the war. Shortly after the shootings took place, the Urban Institute conducted a national study that concluded the Kent State shooting was the single factor causing the only nationwide student strike in history—over 4 million students protested and over 900 American colleges and universities closed during the student strikes.

President Nixon and his administration's public reaction to the shootings was callous. Then National Security Advisor Henry Kissinger said the president was "pretending indifference." Stanley Karnow noted in his Vietnam: A History that "The [Nixon] administration initially reacted to this event with wanton insensitivity. Nixon's press secretary, Ron Ziegler, whose statements were carefully programmed, referred to the deaths as a reminder that 'when dissent turns to violence, it invited tragedy.'" Karnow further documented that one night, the president met some young dissidents conducting a vigil at the Lincoln Memorial where upon Nixon "treated them to a clumsy and condescending monologue, which he made public in an awkward attempt to display his benevolence."

On May 14 of the same year, two students at the historically black Jackson State University were shot to death and several others wounded, under more questionable circumstances, and without arousing as much nationwide attention as the Kent State shootings had. (For more on this incident, see Jackson State killings or the information at the African American Registry.)

There was wide discussion in some ranges of the press as to whether these were legal shootings of American citizens or not, and whether the protests were legal or not. These debates served to further galvanize uncommitted opinion by the terms of the discourse. The term "massacre" was applied to the shootings by some individuals and media sources, as it had been used for the Boston Massacre of 1770, in which five were killed and several more wounded.

On June 13, 1970, President Nixon established the President's Commission on Campus Unrest which he charged to study the dissent, disorder, and violence breaking out on college and university campuses across the nation.[10] The Commission's establishment was a consequence of the fatal violence at Kent State and Jackson State. The Commission issued its findings in a September 1970 report that concluded that the Ohio National Guard shootings on May 4, 1970 were unjustified. The report said:

"Even if the guardsmen faced danger, it was not a danger that called for lethal force. The 61 shots by 28 guardsmen certainly cannot be justified. Apparently, no order to fire was given, and there was inadequate fire control discipline on Blanket Hill. The Kent State tragedy must mark the last time that, as a matter of course, loaded rifles are issued to guardsmen confronting student demonstrators."

In September 1970, twenty-four students and one faculty member were indicted on charges connected with the May 4 demonstration or the ROTC building fire three days before. The individuals, who had been identified from photographs, became known as the "Kent 25." Five cases, all related to the burning of the ROTC building, went to trial; one non-student defendant was convicted on one charge and two other non-students pleaded guilty. One other defendant was acquitted, and charges were dismissed against the last. In December 1971, all charges against the remaining twenty were dismissed for lack of evidence.[11][12]

[edit] Legal action against the guardsmen

The guardsmen claimed that they had fired in defense of their lives, a defense which was generally accepted by the criminal justice system. Eight of the guardsmen were indicted by a grand jury, but in 1974 District Judge Frank Battisti dismissed charges against eight of the guardsmen on the basis that the prosecution's case was so weak that the guardsmen did not need to put on a defense. [13]

[edit] Long term effects

The years following the shootings (1970 to 1979) were filled with lawsuits filed by families of the victims who were hoping to place blame on Governor Rhodes and the Ohio National Guard. Trials were held on both the federal and state level but all ended in acquittals or were dismissed. There was one civil trial for wrongful death and injury that was originally dismissed but eventually overturned in Cincinnati due to the judge excluding evidence. The plaintiffs were awarded approximately $63,000 per victim and the defendants were forced to say they regretted their actions.[14]

The Kent State incident forced the National Guard to re-examine its methods of crowd control. The only instruments the Guardsmen had that day to dispel demonstrators were bayonets, CS gas grenades, and .30-06 ball ammunition. In the years that followed, the U.S. Army began developing less lethal means of dispersing demonstrators (such as rubber bullets) and changed its crowd control and riot tactics to attempt to not cause casualties amongst the demonstrators. Many of the crowd control changes brought on by the Kent State tragedy are used today by police forces when facing similar situations.

One outgrowth of the tragedy was the Center for Peaceful Change, which was established at Kent State University in 1971 "as a living memorial to the events of May 4, 1970."[15] Now known as The Center for Applied Conflict Management (CACM), it developed one of the earliest conflict resolution undergraduate degree programs in the United States.

[edit] Memorials at Kent State

Each May 4 from 1971 to 1975 the Kent State University administration sponsored an official commemoration of the tragedy. Upon the university's announcement in 1976 that it would no longer sponsor such commemorations, the May 4 Task Force, a group made up of students and community members, was formed for this purpose. The group has organized a commemoration on the university's campus each year since 1976; events generally include a silent march around the campus, a candlelight vigil, a ringing of the victory bell in memory of those killed and injured, speakers (always including eyewitnesses and family members), and music.

In 1990, a memorial commemorating the events of May 4 was dedicated on the campus on a 2.5 acre (10,000 m²) site overlooking the University's Commons where the shootings occurred. Even the construction of the monument became controversial and in the end, only 7% of the design was constructed. The memorial does not contain the names of those killed or wounded in the shooting.[16]

In 1999, at the urging of relatives of the four students killed in 1970, the university constructed memorials for each of the students in the parking lot between Taylor and Prentice halls. Each of the four memorials is located on the exact spot where the student died. They are surrounded by a raised rectangle of concrete featuring four lightposts approximately four feet high, with the student's name engraved on a triangular marble plaque in one corner.[17]

George Segal's 1978 cast-from-life bronze sculpture In Memory of May 4, 1970, Kent State: Abraham and Isaac was commissioned for the Kent State campus by a private fund for public art, but was refused by the university administration who deemed its subject matter (the biblical Abraham poised to sacrifice his son Isaac) too controversial. The sculpture was accepted in 1979 by Princeton University, and presently rests between the university chapel and library.[18]

An earlier work of land art, Partially Buried Woodshed, was produced on the Kent State campus by Robert Smithson in January 1970.[19] Shortly after the tragedy, an inscription was added that recontextualized the work in such a way that it came to be associated by some with the event.

In 2004, a simple stone memorial was erected at Plainview-Old Bethpage John F. Kennedy High School in Plainview, New York, which Jeffrey Miller had attended.

[edit] Artistic tributes

[edit] Music

Nash, Stills, Tom Grace and Crosby on the Kent State University campus in 1997
Enlarge
Nash, Stills, Tom Grace and Crosby on the Kent State University campus in 1997

The best known response to the Kent State University tragedy was the protest song "Ohio," written by Neil Young within weeks of the incident for Crosby, Stills, Nash & Young. Crosby, Stills, and Nash visited the Kent State campus for the first time on May 4, 1997, where they performed the song for the May 4 Task Force's 27th annual commemoration.

Much less well known was Harvey Andrews' "Hey Sandy". Its lyrics were addressed to Sandra Scheuer. Other comparatively little known musical tributes include Steve Miller's "Jackson-Kent Blues,"lyrics from the album Number 5 (released in November 1970), and the Beach Boys' 1971 "Student Demonstration Time," lyrics which appeared on their Surf's Up LP. The latter song shares the tune of Leiber & Stoller's "Riot in Cell Block Number Nine."

Jon Anderson has said that the lyrics of "Long Distance Runaround" (on the album Fragile by Yes, also released in 1971) are also in part about the shootings, particularly the line "hot colour melting the anger to stone."[20]

There is also speculation that the second verse in John Denver's "Stonehaven Sunset" refers to Kent State. The lyrics include:

"They are shooting at random, though they aim at us all. It's the children who'll rise up and the children who'll fall. All the angels are weeping the sweetest of tears fall like rivers of mercy to wash all our fears. Sing a song for old glory and a feature that dies, sing of Stonehaven desert home, Stonehaven sunrise."

[citation needed]

In 1970-71 Halim El-Dabh, a Kent State University music professor who was on campus when the shootings occurred, composed Opera Flies, a full length opera, in response to his experience. The work was first performed on the Kent State campus on May 8, 1971 and was revived for the 25th commemoration of the tragedy in 1995.

In 1971, the composer and pianist Bill Dobbins (who was a Kent State University graduate student at the time of the shootings), composed The Balcony, an avant-garde work for jazz band inspired by the same event. First performed in May 1971 for the university's first commemoration, it was released on LP in 1973 and was performed again by the Kent State University Jazz Ensemble in 2000 for the 30th commemoration.

Dave Brubeck's 1971 oratorio Truth Is Fallen also has the Kent State tragedy as its subject; the work was premiered in Midland, Michigan on May 1, 1971 and released on LP in 1972.[21]

The All Saved Freak Band dedicated their 1973 album My Poor Generation to "Tom Miller of the Kent State 25." Tom Miller was a band member who had been featured in Life magazine as part of the Kent State protests and lost his life the next year in an automobile accident.[22]

Holly Near's "It Could Have Been Me", her personal response to the shootings, was released on her 1974 A Live Album.

The industrial band Skinny Puppy's 1989 song "Tin Omen," which appears on the albums Rabies and the Live album, also refers to the event.

Lamb of God's 2000 song "O.D.H.G.A.B.F.E." references Kent State, together with the Auschwitz concentration camp, the Tiananmen Square protests of 1989, the 1968 Democratic National Convention and the Waco siege.

A commemorative 2-CD compilation featuring music and interviews was released by the May 4 Task Force in May 2005, in commemoration of the 35th anniversary of the shootings.

Joe Walsh, who briefly attended Kent State, has said that he wrote 'Turn to Stone' in response to the shootings.[citation needed]

One of the students who participated in the protest was Chrissie Hynde, future leader of The Pretenders, who was a sophomore at the time.[23]

Mark Mothersbaugh and Gerald Casale, founding members of Devo, also attended Kent State at the time of the shootings. Casale was reportedly "standing about 15 feet away" from Allison Krause when she was shot, and was friends with her and another murdered student. The shootings were the transformative moment for the band, which became less of a pure joke and more a vehicle for social critique (albeit with a blackly humorous bent).[24]

[edit] Poetry

The incident is mentioned in Allen Ginsberg's 1975 poem Hadda be Playin' on a Jukebox

Yevgeny Yevtushenko's poem Bullets and Flowers is addressed to Allison Krause. Reportedly Krause had participated in the previous days' protest during which she put flowers in the barrels of National Guard rifles, as had been done at a war protest at the Pentagon in October 1967.

[edit] Plays

  • 1995 - Nightwalking. Voices From Kent State by Sandra Perlman, Kent, Franklin Mills Press, first presented in Chicago April 20, 1995 (Director: Jenifer (Gwenne) Weber)

[edit] Multimedia

In her 1996 multimedia work Partially Buried, visual artist Renée Green explores the history of the shootings within a wider historical and cultural context.

[edit] Films

[edit] Documentary

  • 1970 - Confrontation at Kent State (director Richard Myers) - documentary filmed in Kent, Ohio directly following the shootings by a Kent State University filmmaker.
  • 1971 - Allison (director Richard Myers) - a tribute to Allison Krause
  • 1979 - George Segal (director Michael Blackwood) - documentary about American sculptor George Segal; Segal discusses and is shown creating his bronze sculpture Abraham and Isaac, which was originally intended as a memorial for the Kent State University campus.
  • 2000 - Kent State: The Day the War Came Home (director Chris Triffo) - documentary featuring interviews with injured students, eyewitnesses, guardsmen, and relatives of students killed at Kent State.

[edit] Drama

  • 1981 - Kent State (director James Goldstone) - television docudrama
  • 2002 - The Year That Trembled (director Jay Craven)

[edit] See also

[edit] Further reading

  • Bills, Scott. (1988). Kent State/May 4: Echoes Through a Decade. Kent, OH: Kent State University Press. ISBN 0-87338-278-1.
  • Caputo, Philip. (2005). 13 Seconds: A Look Back at the Kent State Shootings. New York: Chamberlain Bros. ISBN 1-59609-080-4.
  • Davies, Peter and the Board of Church and Society of the United Methodist Church. (1973). The Truth About Kent State: A Challenge to the American Conscience. New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux. ISBN 0-374-21041-5.
  • Eszterhas, Joe, and Michael D. Roberts (1970). Thirteen Seconds: Confrontation at Kent State. New York: Dodd, Mead. ISBN 0-396-06272-5.
  • Gordon, William A. (1990). The Fourth of May: Killings and Coverups at Kent State. Buffalo, NY: Prometheus Books. ISBN 0-87975-582-2. Updated and reprinted in 1995 as Four Dead in Ohio: Was There a Conspiracy at Kent State? Laguna Hills, CA: North Ridge Books. ISBN 0-937813-05-2.
  • Michener, James. (1971). Kent State: What Happened and Why. New York: Random House and Reader's Digest Books. ISBN 0-394-47199-7.
  • Payne, J. Gregory (1981). Mayday: Kent State. Dubuque, Iowa: Kendall/Hunt Pub. Co. ISBN 0-8403-2393-X.
  • Report of the President's Commission on Campus Unrest. (1970) Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office. ISBN 0-405-01712-X.


[edit] External links

[edit] Audio

[edit] Video

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