Joseon White Porcelain
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Joseon white porcelain and Korean pottery in general were subjected to numerous transformations during the turbulent five hundred year period of the Joseon Dynasty. The history of Joseon ceramics is generally divided into three major periods; the early, the middle, and the late period. Although experts offer differing opinions the chronology of Joseon ceramics, three major events affected kiln production; the influence of the Japanese invasions of 1592 and 1597, the establishment of the official kilns at Punwon (1751), and the privatization of Punwon (1884). Joseon white porcelains are marked by a lack of artifice and complexity. Their underlying beauty is cultivated by means of unpretentious forms, understated decoration, and subtle use of color, mirroring the ideals of Confucian doctrine favored by the Joseon Dynasty.
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[edit] Early Joseon White Porcelain (1392-1599)
The first two hundred years of the Joseon Dynasty was an energetic period of transformation, and of establishing and stablizing the newborn nation. The major characteristics of the white porcelains include the establishment and refinement of white porcelains, the organization of Punwon, and the birth of blue-and-white porcelains.
Although white porcelains were technically founded upon the tradition of the white porcelains of Koryo, and of the white porcelains of the late Yuan and early Ming in China, the official policy of the early Joseon period significantly affected the development of white porcelains. Overthrowing Koryo through military force, Joseon justified its cause by professing Confucianism over Buddhism, and undertook reform policies that suited a new dynasty. Trying to display a role model based on the Confucian order, Joseon must have endeavored to cultivate the white porcelain industry that symbolized frugality and pragmatism. As a consequence, King Sejong the Great (reign 1419-1450), epitomizing the typical Confucian monarch of compassion, adopted white porcelains exclusively as the official ware. With official support, white porcelain was able to develop its distinctive characteristics. Hence, the Koryo-Buddhism-Celadon relationship, soon replaced by the Joseon-Confucianism-White Porcelain relationship, which influenced the formation of Joseon white porcelains. During the first hundred years of the Joseon Dynasty, white porcelains that symbolized the new dynasty struggled with buncheong ware that succeeded Koryo celadons. However, white porcelains eventually gained predominant control, following the expansion of the Confucian ideology and the political stabilization of the new dynasty.
It is believed that Punwon, a branch of Saongwon (department in charge of serving the King's meals), was established around the 1460s near the Kyonganch'on area in Kwangju, Kyonggi province. As the official kiln, Punwon was in charge of producing ceramics for court, and thus greatly influenced the nationwide production and development of white porcelains. The establishment of Punwon and the subsequent popularization of the white porcelains also led to the dramatic decline of bucheong ware, and many provincial kilns appear to have switched to white porcelain production by the end of the 15th century.
The most significant event in ceramics of the early Joseon period is the birth of the blue-and-white porcelains. This event is currently considered to have occurred in the mid-15th century, as supporting records from the reign of King Sejo (reigned 1455-1468) document that efforts were made in obtaining local cobalt pigment. The cobalt pigments imported from China at that time appears to have been as expensive as gold. Thus, very few special pieces were decorated with cobalt and only a handful remain today. As the designs in the blue-and-white porcelains display the development and the adoption of Joseon features, blue-and-white porcelains of this period provide important examples in understanding Korean art.
The energetic and imposing shapes reflecting the character of the new dynasty, and the austere features exhibiting the high spirits pursued by Confucian scholars, form the major chatacteristics of the white porcelains of the early Joseon period. Along the development of pure white porcelains that echo the lofty tastes of the literati scholars, designs in underglaze iron-brown or cobalt-blue that recall ink paintings appreciated by literaty scholars were occasionally on white porcelains.
[edit] Middle Joseon White Porcelain (1600-1751)
This 150-year period embraces the time right after the Japanese invasions, from the 17th century until the settlement of Punwon in 1751 at Punwon-ni, Namjong-myon, Kwangju province. The Japanese invasions that lasted for seven years devasted the entire peninsula, and went so far as to threaten the continuation of the Joseon Dynasty. The invasions clearly marked a major turning point in the history of the Joseon Dynasty.
The unfortunate historic circumstances naturally affected the ceramic industry. The official kiln, Punwon came to a halt, and records show that white porcelains with "imitation painting" was used for court ceremonies instead of the usual blue-and-white porcelains, as the blue-and-white variety could not be produced. Nevertheless, the recovery of the kiln industry appears to have been relative rapid, and active production is evidenced by the mid-17th century kiln site in Sondong-ni. One of the distinctive features of this period is the relocation of the kilns every ten years within the Kwangju area in search of firewood that was needed in great amounts for kiln firing.
Meanwhile, the Ming dynasty that had sent reinforcements during the Japanese invasions, how collapsed and a new Manchu Dynasty, the Qing, was established. Joseon regarded Qing as a "barbarous" nation, and pursued a Joseon oriented policy, breaking off from mainland China. Thus, Joseon was able to focus more on developing its own culture, independent from Chinese influence. As a result, Sirhak (practical learning) was introduced, distinct Joseon characteristics were discovered, establishing a unique Joseon cultrue.
Anticipating the atmosphere of the period, ceramics also attained distinction and presented attractive features that are admired even today. White porcelains of the mid Joseon period are characterized by the change of the white porcelain quality, the introduction of new shapes, the dominance of underglaze iron-brown painting, and the popularization of simple cobalt-blue designs.
In the first half of the 17th century, white porcelains displayed a greyish-white color, but soon improved to a snowish-white color by the first half of the 18th century, forming the so-called Kumsa-ri white porcelains. The imposing forms from the early period transformed into long shapes, and the new beveled forms became popular. The "full moon jar," considered the epitome of Joseon white porcelains, was achieved in this period. Designs on ceramics altered substantially with the popularization of white porcelains painted in underglaze iron-brown, and with the preference for humorous designs of dragon among clouds and for simple abstract designs of plants. In the 18th century, simple designs of plants like orchids reflected the new level of accomplishment in blue-and-white porcelains, embracing the Korean and the noble literati spirit.
White porcelains of the mid-Joseon period saw the realization of the typical Joseon artistic taste. In other words, the restraint and balance, the impressive sense of space, and the careful yet natural composition in the white porcelains of this period incorporated an elegant refinement that reached a high level of artistic accomplishment in the history of Joseon ceramics.
[edit] Late Joseon White Porcelain (1752-1884)
Due to the constant problems arising from the periodical transfer of Punwon, King Yongjo (reign 1725-1776) settled the official kiln at Punwon-ni, Namjong-myon, the meeting point of the north and south Han rivers, Established in this area, Punwon continued active production until the late 19th century. However, the difficulties in material suuply and the overwhelming inflow of private capital lef to the privitization of Punwon in 1884, ending its role as the official kiln site. The white porcelains from the late Joseon period embrace the 150 years of activity in this settlement; they are also known as Punwon white porcelains.
During the early part of this period, in the mid-18th century, Joseon society gradually turned its eyes toward the advanced culture of the Qing, China. At the same time, the development of commerce stimulated the internal disintegration of the Confucian social class system within Joseon society. During the reign of King Chongjo (reign 1777-1800), the bold reforms and the acceptance of the advanced culture from China led to a new age of literary revival. However, from the 19th century, the weakened monarchy and the expansion of capitalistic ventures brought about the fall of the social class order, notably the overwhelming rise of the yangban class. Thus, the social circumstances came to encourage the frequent appearance of folk elements and extravagant features in art. White porcelain from the late Joseon period emphasized both practical and decorative elements, reflecting the artistic tastes of everyday life. While the shapes focused on practical functions and the thick walls presented generous forms, the glaze color achieved a jasper-like bluish-white tint. A variety of new shapes were also introduced, and the production of scholarly implements dramatically increased following the expansion of the yangban class.
The introduction of new decorative designs in white porcelains reflected the extravagant social circumstances of the period. Even among pure white porcelains, lavish decorations in this period such as openwork or relief decorations increased. Most notable in this period was the dramatic rise of blue-and-white porcelain, givin the period the title "the age of blue-and-white porcelain." Unlike the 18th century white porcelains decorated by court painters with attractive designs such as "four symbols of the literati," landscape, and dragon among clouds, 19th century white porcelain was more often adorned with fortuitous sybols influenced by folk art, and also generously applied with brilliant copper-red decorations. Moreoever, white porcelain with cobalt-blue, iron-brown, and copper-red decorations altogether became extremely popular.
Late Joseon white porcelain accomplished variety. The change of social circumstances and the introduction new foreign cultures affected white porcelain in both quality and quantity. White porcelain of this period came to penetrate deep into all levels of society. From the late 19th century, however, the decline of the Joseon Dynasty and the disintegration of the social order caused white porcelain to deteriorate and degenerate; moreover, the privatization of Punwon and the introduction of new Japanese technology further contributed to the unfortunate downfall of white porcelain.
[edit] References
- Handbook of Korean Art (White Porcelain and Punch'ong Ware) (2002), Jae-yeol Kim.
- Five Centuries of Korean Ceramics (Pottery and Porcelain of the Yi Dynasty) (1975), Goro Akaboshi & Heiichiro Nakamaru.
- Earth, Spirit, Fire: Korean Masterpieces of the Choson Dynasty (2000), Powerhouse Museum / Queensland Art Gallery.
