Iyer
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Iyer
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| Total population | 2004: (approx) 4,000,000 (roughly 3% of Tamils) |
| Regions with significant populations | Chennai: XXXX Mayavaram:XXXX Tirunelveli district: XXXX Thiruvananthapuram: XXXX Palghat: XXXX London: XXXX - Also known as 'Thames Iyers' |
| Language | Mother tongue is Tamil with unique Iyer dialects. Knowledge in Sanskrit for religious reasons. |
| Religion | Advaita Hinduism, Saivite Hinduism |
| Related ethnic groups | Brahmin
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Iyer, Aiyer, Ayer, Ayyar, Ayyer (Tamil : ஐயர்) are last names used by a section of Tamil Brahmins (a priestly Hindu class / caste from India). Iyers mostly profess the advaita philosophy propounded by Sri Shankaracharya.
[edit] Identity and origins
Iyers "aryan" ssettlers of south India. Like all other Brahmins, they trace their paternal ancestors to one of eight rishis or sages. This way they classify themselves into eight gotras, according to the ancestor rishi.
The term Iyer however derives from the term Ayya used by the people of the Tamil regions to denote a respected person and are seen as representatives of Vedic Culture [1]
Iyers have many subsects among them, such as Vadama, Brihatcharanam, Vathima, and Ashtasahasram, sholiyar or chozhiars. Each subsect is further subdivided according to the village or region of origin. Iyers do not have a single origin, as they have come to Tamil lands in different periods of time, for different reasons and from different parts of India, even though it is common to see them intermarry in modern times. They also maintain a similar culture regardless of specific origin, due to cultural interaction for more than a millennium. It is likely that males of some subsects have intermarried with other Dravidian castes, outside the Brahmin fold. In some cases, the children of such marriages have been included within the community, but generally, the children have acquired the caste of the mother. Intermarriage between Iyer women and non-Iyer men has been rare, however. When it does occur, it usually results in the excommunication of both the partners as well as their children and they are demoted to the caste belonging to the non-Iyer man, necessarily deemed lower in status (being non-Brahmin). However, very little is clear about the caste rules that were followed by earlier Brahmin immigrants, and it is most likely that Brahmins who immigrated to the south earlier may have been more flexible with their caste rules.[2][3]
There was formerly a lot of disunity among Iyer subsects over numerous issues. Such divisions and disagreements reduced with the adoption of Adi Shankaracharya as a teacher, by most Iyers. Now the disputes over interpretation of religious works and rituals exist only between the Iyers and Iyengars.[4]
In later times, when many Vaishnava sects proclaimed themselves Iyengars, the word Iyer was used to usually refer to either Saivaites or to Smarthas. Contemporary Iyers are mostly smarthas and follow Adi Shankara's teachings. .[5]
Though initially divided into distinct groups, they have slowly evolved into a single community with similar culture and habits, the members of which take pride in being called Iyers. They have preserved their unique common identity, even after migrating to other places. Hence in spite of earlier divisions are a single community today and intermarry among themselves without having to make any cultural adjustments. For example,a few centuries back, some of them migrated and settled down in various parts of Kerala. They integrated themselves into their new homeland and built up an identity of their own. The people of Tamil Nadu identified them as Palakkad Brahmins or Palakkad Iyers while the people of Kerala referred to them as Pattars. The term Kerala Iyers is also popular because of their presence all over Kerala. Thus the term Iyer continues to be applicable, even after their emigration from Tamil regions.
Iyers like other Brahmins formed a part of the earlier society, which practiced and dealt with religious and educational activities. Iyers follow one of the four Veda - Rig Veda, Sama Veda, Yajur Veda and Atharva Veda. The veda that an iyer follows forms an important part of his identity. Yet another part of an Iyer's identity is the Gothra that he follows. The Gothra is the name of the rishi of which one is a descendent of. Women take the gothra that her father follows until marriage and then during kanya dhan changes her gothra to her husband's.
The only two Nobel prize winners in Physics from India are Iyers, namely C.V.Raman and S.Chandrashekar. In recent times, being a community of highly qualified and educated individuals has resulted in attitudes and cultures of Iyer society changing. People have become more open to ideas and neutral towards statuses within society.
[edit] Rituals, ceremonies and festivals
The Iyer rituals comprise rites as described in Hindu books such as Apastamba Stutra. The most important rites are the shodasa samskaras or the 16 essential rites. [6]
Although many rites and rituals that were practiced in ancient times are no longer followed, some traditions are continued to this day.
Iyers are initiated into rituals at the time of birth. In ancient times Iyers performed rituals when the baby was being separated from mother's umbilical cord. However, this practice is no longer observed. At the time of birth, a horoscope is made for the child based on the position of the stars. Then Iyers undergo the naming ceremony. This affair is important as the name given during this ceremony would be the individual's religious name, and would be used whenever prayers or ceremonies were conducted, where that individual would have to be mentioned. Besides this, some families conduct homas every birthday of the individual, to invoke God's blessings. In other families prayers are performed every year on the individual's birthday. This birthday does not have to do with the child's birthdate, but it corresponds to the nakshatra, or star, corresponding to the time at which the individual is born. The child's first birthday is most important, when both Iyer boys and girls have their ears pierced. From that day onwards a girl is expected to wear earrings. The ceremony is only a formality for the Iyer boys of modern families.
On his seventh birthday, a male child is eligible for the thread ceremony known as Upanayanam. From that day on, he becomes an official member of his caste, and is called as a "twice-born". In ancient times, the boy was sent to gurukula to learn vedas and scriptures. He then practiced extreme discipline during the period known as Brahmacharya. He lived a celibate life, living on alms, and surviving on selected vegetarian saatvic food and observing considerable austerity in behaviour and deeds. The individual had to perform daily fire worship, and perform prayers without fail. Though such practices are not followed in modern times by a majority of Iyers, all Iyer boys undergo the sacred thread ceremony at some point in time before their marriage. Even today, many Iyers continue to follow the daily worship of the sun and the goddess Gayatri. This daily worship is also known as sandhyavandanam. This worship is necessary to be performed at dawn, mid-day, and dusk. The mid-day worship is called madhyahnikam. Besides this, all twice-born Iyers need to perform annual ceremonies such as Upakarma, when they replace their sacred threads with new ones. They also recite 1008 Gayatri japas on a certain day every year. This is one practice very few twice-born Iyers neglect. The Gayatri Mantra is in pre-classical, Vedic Sanskrit, which is even more difficult to pronounce than the classical Sanskrit. Iyer women have their own ceremonies such as the one at the time of attaining puberty (mostly a private family affair) and regular prayers that they organize for the welfare of their family. They learn shlokas and devotional hymns, and regularly worship various Deities.
[edit] Iyer marriage
A typical Iyer marriage consists of Sumangali Prarthana, Naandi, Nischayadhaartham and Mangalyadhaaranam. This is a highly ritualistic affair and finally the bridegroom and the bride walk around the sacred fire seven times to complete the marriage. The main ritualistic events of an Iyer marriage include Vratam, Kasi Yatra, Uunjal (Swing), Kanya danam, Mangalya dharanam, Paanigrahanam and Saptapathi. This is usually followed by Nalangu, which is a casual and informal event.
An Iyer marriage is usually concluded on the basis of the matching of horoscopes (of bride and groom). Like most Indian Hindus, Iyers are strong believers in horoscopes, and consult astrologers for marriages, events like commencement of business, financial prosperity and physical health. Sometimes the astrologers point out defects in horoscopes and corresponding remedial measures.
[edit] Other events and festivals
The other extremely important rituals for the Iyers are the death ceremonies. All Iyers are cremated according to vedic rites, usually within a day of the individual's death. The death rites include a 13-day ceremony, and regular tarpanam (performed every month thereafter, on Amavasya day, or New Moon Day), for the ancestors. There is also a yearly shraarddha, that needs to be performed. These rituals are expected to be performed only by male descendants of the deceased. Married men who perform this ritual must be accompanied by their wives. The women are symbollically important in the ritual to give a "consent" to all the proceedings in it.
There are other rituals for different occasions like Grihapravesam (entering a new house), performing yagnas for the welfare of world, etc.
In traditional families any food is first offered to God as naivedhya, and then eaten. Food is not considered to be consumed before this religious offering.
Iyers celebrate different festivals where they worship God. They offer different kinds of sweets to God unique to that festival. These offerings usually include fruits. Worship of God is done by reciting Sanskrit hymns and special flowers are offered to God. Some of the many festivals celebrated by Iyers are:
Deepavali - the festival of lights, commemorating the victory of Lord Krishna over the demon Narakasura. The Iyers celebrate this in their unique style by waking up early in the morning and having an oil bath. The Deepavali medicine is a herbal preparation, that is believed to increase an individual's appetite for sweets. This sweet is prepared unfailingly every year. People light their houses with lamps, and burst fire crackers on this day.
Navaratri or more famously known as Dasara- the nine-day festival of Durga which culminates in a Saraswathy Puja and then Vijayadasami. During this festival in which women actively participate, they get dressed in their best attire and keep an exhbition of dolls in their homes.This practice is also known as golu.On Saraswathy puja, Iyers keep the books they use, for puja. These books are removed and read on the Vijayadasami- the tenth day. Any other new work is also started on Vijayadasami. The food offered to God during Navaratri is sundal.
Pongal - the yearly festival for the Sun. The Sakkarai Pongal is a sweet made of rice and jaggery for this occasion. Sugarcane is also offered to God on this day.
Vinayaka Chaturthi - Birthday of Lord Ganesha. Kozhakattai (steamed rice dumpling usually with a jaggery/coconut filling) is a sweet prepared for this occasion, and is considered the favourite of Lord Ganesha.
Janmaashtami - Birthday of Lord Krishna. Cheedais (deep-fried rice balls, with various spices, sometimes jaggery), "thattais"(rice flour with pulses and chilly powder fried in oil), "murukkus"(rice flour fried in oil) are special food items prepared for this festival.
Tamil New Year- New Year[[according to the Tamil calendar. A neem paste is the main dish for this day. Payasam]](sweetened milk) is another famous dish and is usually prepared with vadai(delicious rice and udadh dhaal flour deep fried in oil)
Sivarathri - Worship day of Lord Shiva. The Lord Shiva is pleased with austerities, so no sweets are prepared. Instead, people are expected to fast the whole day, and worship Lord Shiva throughout the night. Fruits are permissible for those who cannot follow the intense devotion expected.
Karthika deepam - Day celebrating the victory of Lord Muruga over evil. Pori (sweetened puffed rice, sweetened with jaggery), is prepared on this day. The house is also lit with lamps to celebrate the victory over darkness.
Avani avittam - Upakarma day for the Iyers. On this day, Iyers change the sacred thread and recite vedas.
Iyers keep certain days for fasting. Some of the days Iyers fast are, Amavasya, Ekadasi, and Sivarathri.
[edit] Residence of Iyers
Iyers nowadays live mostly in urban centres; they are to be found in certain rural areas as well. In the past, they used to live in colonies known as Agraharams (in Sanskrit Agram means tip or end and Haram means garland). Generally, Shiva and Vishnu temples are situated at the ends of an agraharam. Also, most agraharams lie by the side of a river). These are streets where only Brahmins were allowed to live. A typical agraharam consists of a temple and a street adjacent to it. Iyers used to live as joint families in these exclusive streets. The houses were simple and had a design of their own. The design was the same in all houses, only the dimensions were different.
After India's independence, Iyers started moving out of their agraharams and began living with the rest of the society. However, there are still some agraharams left where traditional or old Iyers continue to reside. In an Iyer residence, people wash their feet first with water on entering their house before going further into the house. This is not possible in flats in cities due to the layout of flats. But in houses in villages, the layout permits this and is still practised.
[edit] Social and political issues
During the ancient and mediaeval periods, Iyers (and Brahmins in general) rose in prominence in Indian society, primarily due to their emphasis on spiritual life and scholarship, particularly in terms of their expertise in the Vedas and the attendant religious rituals. Later, during the colonial period they also acquired English education and served as clerks in the British rule in India. After independence, they consolidated their position in the Indian administration. Such a situation led to resentment from the other castes in Tamil Nadu, An upshot of this atmosphere was an "anti-Brahmin" movement and the formation of the Justice Party. Though formed on a principled high-ground, the movement soon led to a power struggle between the Brahmins and the other castes like the Mudaliars, Pillais and Chettiars. In the 1960s the Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (roughly translated as "Organisation for Progress of Dravidians") and its subgroups gained political ground on this platform forming state ministries, thereby wrenching control from the Indian National Congress, in which Iyers at that time were holding important party positions.
[edit] Iyer women
The Iyer woman is often portrayed as woman draped in a nine yard saree, also known as madisar in Tamil. This dress is permitted only for "sumangali" (loosely, a woman whose husband is still alive). Though such dress is worn regularly only by the older women, on festivals and other religious occasions it is worn by young women as well. Traditional Iyer women, both married and unmarried wear a "pottu" (red dot, also known as kumkum/sindoor/bindi) on their forehead and married women always wear the mangalsutra or "Thaali" as it is called in Tamil. This is a sacred cord tied by the bridegroom around the bride's neck and is the chief part of the marriage as it unites them in matrimony, while the officiating Brahmin priests chant vedic hymns.
Earlier, an Iyer woman became a part of her husband's family after marriage and adopted the gotra/lineage as well as the traditions of her husband's family. An Iyer woman who does not marry a Brahmin is no longer considered a Brahmin and is not eligible to participate in any of the orthodox traditions.
Until recently, an Iyer widow (but not a widower) was never allowed to remarry. Divorces were considered a "great evil". Once a widow, an Iyer woman had to shave her head and lead the life of Sanyasin. She had to stop wearing the kumkum/bindi on her forehead, and was recommended to smear her forehead with sacred ashes. All of these practices have fallen by the wayside over the last few decades, and modern Iyer widows lead unencumbered lives.
There is also a restriction on Iyer women during their menstruation period. During this time, the Iyer women are prohibited from touching any person in the house and she is prevented from even entering the worship or prayer room.She does not visit temples and does not partake any holy offerings such as prasadam. Even though the practice of temporary untouchability is not followed in many modern homes, only very few Iyer women dare touch the idols in their homes or even visit temples during this period.
[edit] Traditional Iyer ethics
Iyers are an orthodox community that adhered steadfastly to their customs and traditions till the turn of the 20th century, when they started leaving their traditional priestly duties for more secular vocations, causing contemporary Iyers to be more flexible than their parents and grandparents. They followed the Manusmriti (Hindu Code of Laws or The Institutes of Manu) and the Grihya Sutras of Apastamba and Baudhayana. Most modern Iyers, however, consider these books outdated or impracticable for the modern times, and even religious leaders no longer require strict adherence. The society is patriarchal but not feudal.
Nevertheless, a Brahmin woman has always been found to be more educated (either an expert at arts or science) compared to other communities. An example of this is the 20th century (Rukmini Devi Arundale) where many Brahmin women acquired an undergraduate degree.
Iyers observed many rules in the past when they used to live and marry within their own community. Their dietary habits can be considered to be strict, consuming only vegetarian food which excludes fish and fowl, eggs and egg products. Some abjure onion and garlic on the grounds that they activate certain base senses. Milk and milk products, preferably from the cow, were approved. They were mandated to avoid the consumption of intoxicants, including alcohol and tobacco.
Iyers follow elaborate purification rituals, both of self and the house. The women of the household cooked food only after a bath, while the males would perform religious rites after a purificatory bath. An Iyer does not visit a temple without taking bath. Food was partaken only after it was offered to the deity/deities in a prescribed manner. Like any other brahmin community, taking of bath everday was considered most mandatory, and was strictly speaking the first thing to be carried out, before beginning any work of the day or before the start of any ritual or prayer. So much of importance was given to this, that it was not unusual to see Iyers bath many times during the day(before performing any important ritual). The bathing was considered sufficiently purifying only if it confirmed to the rules of "madi". The word "madi" is a term used by Tamil Brahmins, to indicate that a person is bodily pure. In order to practice madi, the brahmin had to wear only clothes which had been recently washed and dried, and the clothes should remain untouched by any person. Only after taking bath in cold water, and after wearing such kind of clothes, would the person be in a state of madi. This practice of madi is followed by Iyers even in modern times, before participating in any kind of religious ceremony .
Traditionally, certain acts were defined as unforgivable sins. These included premarital and extramarital sex.
[edit] Traditional attire
Iyer men traditionally wear veshtis, which cover them from waist to foot. These are made of cotton and sometimes silk. Veshtis are worn in different styles, the veshtis are worn in a typical brahminical style during religious ceremonies, the style is popularly known as panchakacham They sometimes wrap their shoulders with a single piece of cloth known as angavastram (body-garment), but mostly keep their chests bare. They also wear the sacred thread across their shoulders. This is worn by them from the time of their initiation into the Vedic order, which usually takes place when the boys reach the age of seven. Many centuries ago, some highly ritualistic Iyers also draped their waist or chests with deer skin or grass.
Even though only priests wear such traditional attire on a daily basis, many Iyers continue to dress themselves in this manner on religious occasions. Women, as discussed earlier wear a nine yard saree which covers them from neck to foot. The sarees are made of either cotton or silk. In modern times synthetic materials are also used. They also wear earrings, necklaces and other ornaments and decorate their hair with sweet-smelling flowers such as jasmine.
Slippers were traditionally made of wood, but now rubber and leather based footwear has replaced them.
[edit] Iyers today
Akin to Bengal, the Brahmins in South India were the one of the first communities to be anglicized. However, this was restricted to their outlook on the material world. They have clung on to their Vedic Hindu traditions despite almost two centuries of western influence.
This newly created elite became the dominant social and cultural stratum in South Indian society producing a plethora of British style academicians, industrialists and political leaders. They also played an active role in the Indian independence movement. Prominent leaders from the Iyer community included Subramanya Bharathy. Bharathy fought against the caste system which was widely in vogue during his times. He also gave up his own caste identity.
In addition to their earlier occupations, Iyers today have diversified into a variety of fields — their strengths particularly evident in the fields of Mass Media, science, mathematics and computer science. It is a minuscule percentage of Iyers who choose, in this era, to pursue the traditional vocation of priesthood, though nearly all Hindu temple priests are Brahmins. Iyers have been active in the cultural field also. Music has always been integral to the Iyer community; Carnatic music forms an ancient classical tradition, and includes, apart from vocal music, instruments such as mridangam, naadaswaram, veena, ghatam, etc. Bharatanatyam has been ardently pursued by female members of the Iyer community from the time of its reinvention in early 20th century. These classical art forms, Carnatic music and Bharatanatyam, enjoy public patronage during the Chennai cultural season in the months of December and January.
[edit] Language of Iyers
The people who call themselves Iyers are predominantly South Indian Tamilians. Most Iyers speak Tamil fluently. Palghat Iyers speak both Tamil and Malayalam fluently. In addition to Tamil, a few Iyers are generally well versed in Sanskrit and English as well. Iyers who have lived in other parts of India know other Indian languages too. There are different dialects of the Iyer language depending on the place they descend from. Thanjavur, Tirunelveli, Palakkad are the three most popular dialects of the Iyer language.
All educated Iyers speak English fluently and often have a tendency to discuss even among themselves any subject in English alone. However, the colloquial usage of Tamil by Iyers (read it as Brahmin Tamil or Braahmik) is called 'Iyer baashai' literally meaning 'Iyer language' which means 'Language of the Brahmins' because 'Iyer' is the word that is generally used to refer to any South Indian Tamil Brahmins in Tamil Nadu whether the person is an Iyer or an Iyengar or from any other Brahmin community.
Examples of Iyer Baashai:
| Pure Tamil | How Iyers say it | How others say it | English Meaning |
|---|---|---|---|
| Varugireergala? | Varela? | Vareengala? | Are you coming? |
| Pogireergala? | Porela? | Poreengala? | Are you going? |
| Engal veetil, Engal Agathil | Engathla | Enga veetla | In our house |
| Avargal | Ava | Avanga | They |
| Sollungal | Chollungo | Sollunga | Tell |
| Sirithu Nazhigai | Setha Nazhi | Konja Neram | For some time |
[edit] Iyers and art
A few centuries ago, Iyer men took keen interest in learning and propogating various art forms including carnatic music, Bharatanatyam and literary plays.
They wrote works on poetry and dance. The famous work Bharata Natya Shastra was a work preserved by them. This work describes the technique of dance. It includes many aspects of dance such as kama, bhakti etc. The work has influenced dance form in south India, especially the dance performed by devadasis in temples, today more popularly known as Bharatanatyam. The Iyer women were not allowed to learn dance or acting. In modern times however, it is they who have actually taken up the task of preserving the dance form which was dying out due to the abolishion of the devadasi system by the Indian Government.
But more than dance, the Iyers were interested in music. They patronized the music of South India also known as Carnatic music. Shyama Sastri and Muthuswamy Dikshitar are two of the greatest composers in Carnatic Music. They belong to the Trinity of Carnatic Music. The musical intstruments that are used in Carnatic music include Veena, Mridangam, Nadaswaram, and Ghatam. In modern times they have also adapted instruments such as violin and flute to Carnatic music. Their interest in Carnatic music stems from their belief that music is an art patronized by the goddess Saraswati and originated from the Vedas.
Iyers have also played an important role in writing works on temple architecture. They have written works on the rules to be followed in building temples and creating idols which are worshipped in them.All these rules are mentioned in Agama Shastras.
They have also authored innumerable plays centered around hindu mythologies. These plays were usually performed in the temples.
But most importantly they have also contributed a lot to Tamil Literature. The works are mostly about Bhakti and religion. There are innumerable hymns composed on different deities worshipped in the South such as Meenakshi, Amman, Shiva, Murugan, Vishnu, etc. The style of these poems are indeed unique and beautiful. Besides Tamil, they have also written a number of works in Sanskrit which was considered as the language to be used in rituals.
[edit] Iyer food
The traditional Iyers eat only vegetarian food and avoid intoxicants such as wine or alcohol in their food. The staple food crop used by Iyers is rice. Rice is usually mixed with a typical soup or curd. Rasam, Sambar, Kozhambu are some of the different types of soup. The soups are prepared by Iyers by mixing vegetables, water, dal, tamarind extract and different kinds of spices.Curd rice is a must in the daily menu(due to which Iyers are sometimes teasingly called thayir). Vegetables, dal or vegetable salads (which might be fried or roasted) are used as side dishes which are eaten along with the main course. They also like to eat appalams or pappadums which are crispy wafers usually fried in oil or roasted dry. Sometimes the food is also eaten along with potato or banana chips.
Kerala Iyers like to fry their food in coconut oil which is available in plenty in Kerala. During festivals food is served on banana leaves. Iyers prepare sweets made out of jaggery, sugar and milk.
An Iyer day starts with coffee. Coffee is taken along with milk and sugar. Then they have a bath and go on to have breakfast. Breakfast could be idli, dosa, upma, pongal or Poori. Tea is not a popular drink among Iyers.
[edit] Famous Iyers
See Distinguished Iyers.
[edit] References
- ^ Ayya and Arya,origin of the two words
- ^ Iyer Origin
- ^ Aryan theory and Tamils
- ^ Iyer and Iyengar disputes
- ^ Smartha
- ^ Samskara (rites)
[edit] See also
[edit] External links
- http://www.keralaiyers.com/
- sankethi.com, information on Sankethis, a sub group of Iyers from Karnataka.
- Thummagunta Dravida Iyers, Information on Thummagunta Dravida Brahmins, a sub-sect of Vadama Iyers from Thummagunta in Nellore District, AP.
- brahmin migrations in south India
- Kuzhalmannam Agraharam - a Kerala Iyer Palakkad gramam.
- http://www.boloji.com/hinduism/047.htm
- An article on Saivaite and Vedic Iyers who lived before 1000 AD in Tamil Nadu
- An article on Dikshitars of Chidambaram
- [1] An Article which argues that the Tamil Brahmins have been closely associated with Tamil Culture since the earliest period of recorded history.
- Iyer matrimony gives a brief idea about Iyer marriages
- Advaita Vedanta research centre, and hosts articles and mailing-lists on the subject; see also Advaita.
- Kanchi Kamakoti Peetham, a religious establishment tracing its roots to Adi Sankara.
- Sringeri Sharada Peetham
- http://www.anikode.com/ Anikode Agraharam is about 15 km from Palakkad. Mahakumbhabisekam was performed there on May 4th 2006.
- [2], a complete description of a typical Iyer marriage
- http://koenraadelst.bharatvani.org/articles/aid/aryanpolitics.html , Politics of the Aryan Debate
- http://www.iisc.ernet.in/currsci/dec252005/2174.pdf , Interesting information on Agastya and his association with Tamil Land
- http://www.csuchico.edu/~cheinz/syllabi/asst001/fall97/adra-pin.htm, brief discussion on brahmins within caste system
- http://www.icsi.berkeley.edu/~snarayan/anthro-pap/subsection3_4_1.html , interesting perspective on madi, as practiced by brahmins
- http://www.tribuneindia.com/2005/20050123/society.htm#2, an article on madisar, the ancient-style saree worn by women
- http://www.commsp.ee.ic.ac.uk/~pancham/Articles/The%20Sixteen%20Samskaras.pdf
- http://www.kamakoti.org/hindudharma/part16/chap8.htm
