Islamic pottery

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Cup with hunters, 12th–13th centuries, Iran, musée du Louvre

Islamic pottery era started around 622. From 633, Muslim armies moved rapidly toward Byzantine, Persia, Mesopotamia, Anatolia, Egypt and later Andalusia.

Its early history still remains somewhat obscure and speculative as little evidence survived. Apart from tiles which, fortunately, escaped destruction due to its use in architectural decoration of buildings and mosques, much of early medieval pottery vanished from the scene. The chief work that can one refer to in this subject is Lane’s two books which made substantial contribution to understanding the history and merit of Muslim ceramics. The first book was dedicated to the study of early ceramics from the Abbasid period till the Suljuk times, sketching through various events that played significant role in the rise and fall of particular styles. In his second work, Lane followed the same analytical discussion he adopted in the first book, devoting his attention to later periods from the Mongols to nineteenth century Iznik and Persian pottery. After that, numerous studies appeared, the most comprehensive ones that adopted a general view are the works of Hobson, Grube, Ettinghausen, and more recently Caiger and Febervari. There is also the contribution of those who specialised in particular temporal or regional history of Muslim pottery such as Marcais in his work on North Africa, Watson on Persia and Hallet on Abbasid Pottery and many others. It is quite clear that Muslims inherited the pottery craft from Mesopotamia, Persia, Egypt and other cultural regions. For example, the origin of glazed pottery has been traced to Egypt where it was first introduced during the fourth millennium BC. From there it reached most parts of the near east, including Iran and Mesopotamia, in the form of alkaline glazed pottery. (se Fehervari Gesa (2000), `Ceramics of the Islamic World: In the Tareq Rajab Museum’', I.B. Tauris Publishers, London, New York, p.23.)

Ceramics from the Islamic era are often divided into three sections:

1 Early Medieval (622-1200)
2 Middle (1200-1400)
3 Late/Post-medieval (1400-onward)
4 See also
5 External links

[edit] Early Medieval (622-1200)

Sources indicate that Muslim pottery was not firmly established until the 9th century in Mesopotamia, Syria and Persia using mainly white tin-glaze. Information on earlier periods (7th and 8th centuries) is very limited partly due to limited interest in the study of ceramics of these periods because of the little evidence found as well as the absence of any substantial amount of specimen in good condition. In this concern, archaeological excavations carried out in Jordan uncovered only a few examples from the Umayyad period, mostly unglazed vessels from Khirbat Al-Mafjar. (See Baramki, D.C. (1942), `The pottery from Khirbet El-Mefjer', The Quarterly of the Department of Antiquities in Palestine (QDAP), vol. 10, pp.65-103., Sauer, J.A. (1975), `Umayyad pottery from sites in East Jordan', Jordan, Vol.4, pp.25-32.

During the Abbasid dynasty pottery production gained momentum, largely using tin glazes mostly in the form of opaque white glaze. The reasons behind the rise of such industry as suggested by some historians, like Lane, were attributed to Chinese influence. There is evidence obtained from Muslim manuscripts, such as Akhbar al-Sin wa al-Hind (circa 851) and Ibn Kurdadhbih’s Book of Roads and Provinces (846-885), suggesting that trade with China was firmly established. Lane also referred to the passage in a work written by Muhammad ibn al-Husayn al-Baihaki, (circa 1059) where he stated that the governor of Khurasan, ‘Ali ibn ‘Isa, sent as a present to the Caliph Harun al-Rashid (786-809), “twenty pieces of Chinese Imperial porcelain (Chini faghfuri), the like of which had never been seen at a Caliph’s court before, in addition to 2000 other pieces of porcelain”. According to Lane, the influence of Chinese pottery progressed in three main phases. The first contact with China took place in 751 when the Muslims fought and defeated the Chinese at the battle of Atlakh, near the river Talas. It has been argued that imprisoned Chinese potters and paper makers could have taught the Muslims the art of pottery and paper-making. In 800’s Chinese stoneware and porcelain reached the Abbasids. The second phase took place in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, a period renowned for the decline of pottery industry following the fall of the Seljuk dynasty. This period also saw the invasion of the Mongols who brought with them Chinese pottery tradition. The third phase involves the fifteenth century, when much of this influence came through imports the Muslims made from T'ang, Sung and Ming dynasties at the hand of Zheng He. The influence of ceramics from the Tang dynasty can be seen on lustrewares, produced by Mesopotamian potters, and on some early white wares excavated at Samarra (in modern-day Iraq). Ceramics from this period were excavated at Nishapur (in modern-day Iran) and Samarkand (in modern-day Uzbekistan).

The Hispano-Moresque style emerged in Andalusia in the 8th century, under the Fatimids.

[edit] Middle (1200-1400)

Since early ninth century, Muslim ceramic production was gradually developing leading to the establishment of a reputable industry in the East (Iraq) which later spread to the rest of the Muslim world. In the account of Ibn Naji (circa 1016) the Caliph sent, in addition to tiles, “a man from Baghdad” to Qairawan to produce lustre tiles for the mihrab of the Great Mosque (still well preserved). George Marcais suggested that Iraqi potters indeed came to Quairawan. The arrival of this Baghdadi potters must had led to the establishment of a satellite centre for the production of ceramics in Quairawan, but unfortunately we have no information, yet, to confirm or deny this suggestion. (see Marcais G., (1928),‘Les faiences a reflets metalliques de la grande Mosquee de Kairouan’, Paris, pp.10-11.) In the East, evidence shows that a production centre was set up in Samarkand under the Samanid dynasty who ruled this region and parts of Persia between 874 and 999 C.E. The most highly regarded technique of this centre is the use of calligraphy in the decoration of vessels.

The events leading to the collapse of the Fatimid reign in 1171 resulted in similar processes as those described earlier in Iraq causing ceramic production to move out to new centres, especially Persia which became a centre of revival under the Seljuk rule (1038-1327). This is not coincidental as the Seljuks expanded their rule over Persia, Iraq, Syria, and Palestine, as well as Anatolia and Muslim Asia Minor, all of which have been, for some considerable time, centres of old pottery. The Seljuks brought new and fresh inspiration to the Muslim world, attracting artists, craftsmen and potters from all regions including Egypt. In addition to continuing the production of similar tin and lustre glaze ceramics, although in more refined ways, the Seljuks (in Persia) were credited for the introduction of a new type known as "Faience". This is made from a hard white paste coated with transparent alkaline glaze. In a rare manuscript from Kashan compiled by Abulqassim in 1301, there is a complete description on how the faience production was carried out. The material he called "frit" was made of ten parts of powdered quartz , one part of clay and one part of glaze mixture. The glaze itself is “formed of a roughly equal mixture of ground quartz and the ashes of desert plants which contain a very high proportion of alkaline salts. These act as a flux and cause the quartz to vitrify at a manageable temperature. The two alone will produce a transparent glaze”. (seeWatson, O. (1985), `Persian Lustre ware', London.p.32. cited in Febervari Gesa (2000), op., cit, .p.96) Lane compared this material with the French pâte tender, which was used by potters as recent as the eighteenth century . This body material and the new glaze offered the potter a greater handling and manipulation ability, which allowed him to improve the quality and appearance of the vessel, using more refined decorative designs and patterns. The outcome was a substantial variety of products such as bowls of different size and shapes, jugs, incense burners, lamps, candlesticks, trays, tiles and so on. These advantages also allowed greater control of carved decoration, which the Seljuks refined and extended its use during the twelfth century. (See Lane, A. (1947) `Early Islamic Pottery', Faber and Faber, London)

Carved decoration in ceramics is an old tradition used in ninth century Muslim pottery known as Sgraffiato, which is an engraving technique based on incising, with a sharp tool, the design through a white slip to reveal the red earthenware body, then the vessel is coated with glaze. The Seljuks also developed the so called Silhouette wares which are distinguished by their black background. The technique consists of coating the white fritware body with a thick black slip out of which the decoration was then carved. Later a coat of colourless or coloured, usually blue or green, transparent glaze was applied . According to Lane this technique was used, in a simpler form, before in Samarkand between the ninth and tenth centuries. The method then consisted of mixing the colours with a thick opaque clay slip instead.

[edit] Late/Post-medieval (1400-onward)

The influence of Blue and white porcelain of the Yuan and Ming dynasties is evident in ceramics made by Muslim potters. Wares made in Anatolia (in modern-day Turkey) are particularly notable and had major influence on European decorative arts, for example on the 19th century Maiolica from Padua, Italy.