Islam and anarchism

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Although anarchists commonly reject organized religion (see anarchism and religion), and Islamic Law has been used as a basis for certain authoritarian regimes, there have also been numerous traditions within Islam (often associated with Sufism) that have been interpreted as anarchistic in nature.[1] For instance, Peter Lamborn Wilson describes the Hashshashin movement, also called the Assassins, as a proto-anarchist community.[citation needed] Towards the end of the 20th century among liberal movements within Islam, groups describing themselves as Muslim anarchists first appeared.[2]

Islamic anarchism is based on an interpretation of Islam as "submission to God" which either prohibits or decisively limits the role of human authority.[citation needed] Muslim anarchists believe that only Allah has authority over humanity and reject a submissive compliance to the fatwas of Imams, relying instead on the concept of Ijtihad for a non-authoritarian interpretation of Islam. This is further elaborated by the Islamic concept of "no compulsion in religion".[3]

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[edit] Anarchist criticism of Islam

Since much of the anarchist movement occurred in countries under the influence of the Christian church, most of the criticism of religion was of Christianity. While some of this criticism can be extended to the belief in God and organised religion in general, Western anarchists have been so immersed in the Christian tradition that transferring these criticisms to Islam is often inaccurate. The Western world, and by extension Western anarchists, often sees Islam as a political religion, dictating all aspects of society and daily conduct. This goes against anarchist principles of self-determination in one's daily life.

Anti-Islamic anarchist criticism centers the coercion they see imposed on women in certain Muslim societies, as well as the oppression which Homosexuals experience in these Islamic states (see Homosexuality and Islam). In the popular imagination of the West, Islamic society is patriarchal, where women are forced to wear a veil and are denied basic rights like voting and education. While anarchists would not advocate for voting or, in many cases, formal education, the reasons for these denials becomes the source of conflict. In many majority Muslim countries, homosexuality is illegal and subject to harsh physical punishment, which violates anarchistic concepts of equality and anti-oppression. It is disputed, however, how many of these issues are tied to the religion specifically and how many stem from regional customs. Furthermore, many contemporary feminists, especially Muslim feminists, do not see the Islamic tradition of hijab (modest dress) as oppressive to women.

Also problematic to anarchists is the Islamic treatment of apostates and non-Muslims. The concept of Jihad (which is a traditionally controversial topic among Islamic scholars), while meaning "to struggle in faith," and originally used mostly in connection with a personal, internal obstacle, is often understood to mean a holy war against unbelievers. Anarchists also oppose Sharia law, which is based on the Qur'an and early Muslim traditions and calls for harsh physical punishment for transgressions against religious teachings. Most Muslim states today do not implement Sharia law.

In the 19th and 20th century, there have been a rising number of liberal Muslims who question orthodox interpretations of Islam. These Muslims concentrate on the concept of self-realisation, called Ijtihad, which calls for personal interpretation of religious texts, instead of relying on clerical decrees. Many liberal Muslims call for complete equality of men and women, accept homosexuality, and reject Sharia law, thus removing many of the anarchist objections to Islam. Many liberal Muslims do not see their movement as a reformation, but rather a return to the essence of Islam, which they say was corrupted through the years.

[edit] Similarities between Islam and Anarchism

Similarities between Islam and Anarchism can be roughly grouped into the views on property, social considerations, and oppression and violence. Anarchism advocates free association of free individuals, the absence of state and any form of oppression, and is most commonly a socialist theory which advocates abolition of capitalism and private property in the capitalist sense, focusing instead on cooperation and mutual aid. Muslim anarchists claim that Islam shares many of these ideas.[citation needed]

[edit] Islamic views on property

According to the Islamic belief, everything on Earth belongs to Allah alone, and people are only entrusted with managing them, and live off the Earth and its products. This is contrary to the capitalist concept of ownership based on the Roman doctrine of "the right to use and abuse". It also lays foundation for ecology, as the creations of Allah (including plants and animals) should only be destroyed if absolutely necessary. This is similar to the concept of private possessions introduced by anarchist theorist Proudhon in his work "What is Property?".

[edit] Islam and socialism

Islam specifically prohibits riba (usury), and many modern Islamic banks claim not to charge interest on loans. The Qur'an states: "The usury that is practiced to increase some people's wealth, does not gain anything with God. But if you give in Zakât (charitably), seeking God's pleasure, these are the ones who receive their reward many fold" (Sura Ar-Rum 30:39). Usury in this sense can also be interpreted as overcharging for products during trade. Some have argued that usury is an unavoidable component of capitalism,[citation needed] and that these prohibitions (which Christianity and Judaism share) represent a religious opposition to capitalism. Anarchists also ususally oppose capitalism.

Traditions within Islam also encourage the formation of communities where people know each other and practise mutual help.[citation needed] This is reminiscent of anarchist collectives and different from the capitalist labour markets where work is bought and sold as a commodity.

Another anarchistic feature of Islam is the lack of religious hierarchy. Imams in Islam are people who have studied Islam and amassed knowledge, but their role is that of advisors, not authority,[citation needed] and each Muslim should have a personal relationship with God, without middlemen. Islam teaches of the brotherhood (and sisterhood) of all people.[citation needed] Some see these teachings as commensurable with anarchism, as Islam only implies submission to God, and never submission to priesthood.[citation needed]

[edit] Islam on the use of violence

While Christian anarchists reject the use of violence completely, to some extent, most anarchists agree that the use of violence is justified in self-defense.[citation needed] This idea is also found in the Qur'an, which says "Fight in the way of Allah against those who fight against you, but begin not hostilities. Lo! Allah loves not, aggressors".[citation needed] Although Muslims are often accused of spreading religion by the sword, the Qur'an is specific that there should be no compulsion in religion.

Furthermore, Islam doesn't support oppression. One hadith states "O My servants, I (Allah) have forbidden oppression for Myself and have made it forbidden amongst you, so do not oppress one another". This led some Muslims to reject all oppression, and some also reject the state as a vehicle of oppression.[citation needed] Indeed, although early Muslims had leaders, the daily conduct was governed by Islam and the citizens themselves, and not laws and institutions laid forward by a sovereign. Therefore, some Muslims believe that they should ultimately act based on their religion and not on earthly laws. Muslim Anarchists argue that if the religion allows violence only in self-defense, and prohibits oppression and compulsion in religion, the logical conclusion is a stateless, classless society without hierarchy.[citation needed]

[edit] Historical anarchist tendencies in Islam

Throughout history, there have been anti-authoritarian movements within Islam, but they are not well-documented and have not made a large impact on mainstream Islam.

The first recorded strand of anti-authoritarian Islam dates all the way back to the death of prophet Muhammad. The early Muslims had a disagreement about who should succeed him as the leader of Muslims, resulting in the Shia - Sunni split. There was a third group, however, the Kharijites, who opposed both the Sunni and Shia sects, and claimed that any qualified Muslim could be an Imam. They held that all people were individually responsible for the good or evil of their acts. They challenged all authority and encouraged all, especially the poor and dispossessed, to see the struggle against injustice as being divinely sanctioned. However, although Kharijites saw all believers completely equal regardless of any social differences, they believed that non-believers had no rights, and could be killed.

As both Sunni and Shia strands of Islam developed into authoritarian ideologies, the libertarian ideas within Islam continued most strongly through Sufism, the mystic strand of Islam. Sufism was very common at the edges of the Islamic empires, in secluded areas, and developed under the influence of eastern philosophy, and anti-authoritarian and revolutionary ideas are present throughout its history. Many Sufi orders and Sufis advocated and struggled for women's equality and social justice.

Sufism also provided much of Islamic poetry and literature where these tendencies are visible. One of the most famous Sufi poets was the Persian writer Farid al-Din Attar, who lived in the 13th century CE. In one of his books, "Muslim Saints and Mystics: Episodes from the Tadhkirat al-Auliya' (Memorial of the Saints)", Attar tells a story of a Sufi teacher Fozail-e Iyaz (supposed to have lived in 8th century CE) and the 5th Abbasid Caliph Harun al-Rashid. As Harun looks for a person in his kingdom who can reveal the truth about him, he finds Fozail, who is the only person who speaks honestly and without fawning. Fozail tells Harun that he respects no authority and that "to obey God for one moment is better than a thousand years of people obeying you".

Although there are examples of anti-authoritarian tendencies throughout the history of Islam, the main developments happen in the 20th century, which reintroduces liberal interpretations of Islam and sees mixing of radical left ideas and Islam.

The French cartoonist Gustave-Henri Jossot, a frequent contributor to anarchist magazines including l'Assiette au Beurre which published numerous illustrated polemics railing against the catholic church, converted to Islam in 1913, citing "simplicity, no priests, no dogmas and almost no ceremonies" as reasons. After the change, he continued to criticise the idea of a fatherland, demanded equal payment for all, rejected political action, violence and formal education. He rejected social action, with the rationale that change is only possible on an individual level.

An important and influential figure in the 20th century was Ali Shariati, one of the ideologues of the Islamic Revolution in Iran, and of whom Jean Paul Sartre said: "I have no religion, but if I were to choose one, it would be Shariati's". After the Shah's regime took on a particularly vicious authoritarian note, Shariati was imprisoned for his lectures, which were extremely popular with the students, and was forced to flee Iran. He was assassinated shortly afterwards.

Although Shariati was not an anarchist, his vision of Islam was one of a revolutionary religion siding with the poor. He believed that the only true reflection of the Islamic concept of Tawhid (unity and oneness of God) is a classless society.

The young anarchist Isabelle Eberhardt rejected anarchism for Islam in North Africa in 1897. The sufi sect she joined was involved in the anti-colonial struggle.

[edit] Current figures and trends

Despite the anti-authoritarian ideas throughout history, the real mixing of Islam with the modern theory of anarchism happens at the end of the 20th century.

One of the most influential modern Muslim-influenced anarchists is Peter Lamborn Wilson, also known as Hakim Bey. This controversial anarchist figure combined Sufism and neo-Paganism with anarchism and situationism. He is most known for his concept of Temporary Autonomous Zones, which influenced the "reclaim the streets" movement and events such as the Love Parade.

Recently, there has also been some discussion based on Natural Islam (http://www.illegalvoices.org/knowledge/general_articles/natural_islam.html), which is a green-anarchist, anti-consumerist vision of Islam.

[edit] Modern Islamic Anarchism and the Internet

While it is not unusual to meet Muslims who claim to be communitarian anarchists, there had been sparse evidence of a coherent online presence of Muslim anarchists until June 20th 2005, when Yakoub Islam, a British-based Muslim, published his online Muslim Anarchist Charter (http://www.bayyinat.org.uk/manarchist.htm).

The charter asserted a set of basic principles for anarchist thought and action founded on a Muslim perspective. These reaffirm some of the core principles of Islam, including a belief in God, the prophecy of Muhammad and the human soul, but assert the possibility that a Muslim's spiritual path might be achieved by refusing to compromise with institutional power in any form, be it judicial, religious, social, corporate or political. Muslims are thus challenged to establish a society where spiritual growth is "uninhibited by tyranny, poverty and ignorance". It is in the fervent assertion of the principle of no compromise, driven by a utopian vision of humanity living in peace and co-operation, that the faith of Islam and the politics of anarchism are said to meet.

Yakoub is cautious in describing himself as a Muslim anarchist (or an anarchist Muslim), rather than talking about Islamic anarchism, because the evidence from social research points to a considerable diversity within the Muslim community or ummah, with some anthropologists reluctant to talk about a single 'Islam'. Neither is there, of course, a single 'anarchism.'

[edit] References

  1. ^ Peter Lamborn Wilson, Sacred Drift: Essays on the Margins of Islam, ISBN 0-87286-275-5. (Quote: "This is my brand of Islam: insurrectionary, elegant, dangerous, suffused with light — a search for poetic facts, a donation from and to the tradition of spiritual anarchy." Also by Wilson: "The Drunken Universe: An Anthology of Persian Sufi Poetry" and "Scandal: Essays in Islamic Heresy."
  2. ^ http://www.bayyinat.org.uk/manarchist.htm
  3. ^ Qur'an 2:256

[edit] External links

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