Horses in warfare

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For other uses, see War horse (disambiguation).

A modern-day knight on a draft horse in late medieval plate armor jousting at a Renaissance Fair

War Horses have been used in human warfare for millennia, probably since the time of domestication of the horse. Horses were specially trained for a variety of uses in warfare, including battle, individual combat, reconnaissance, supply, and other necessary military uses. Technically, the term war horse usually refers in general to horses used for fighting, whether in battle or individual combat. The best-known war horse was the destrier, the classic horse ridden by the knight of the Middle Ages. However, even horses used for reconnaissance and supply, those that never engaged in combat, played a critically important part of successful military ventures. There are still a few uses for horses in the military even in the modern world.

[edit] Types of horses used in war

A fundamental principle of horse conformation is "form to function." Therefore, the type of horse used for various forms of warfare depended on the task at hand. There was a trade-off between speed and protection. Adding weight reduces maximum speed, as is seen today when handicapping modern race horses. Conversely, a warrior or soldier also required some degree of protection from enemy weapons, and an overemphasis on light equipment could easily prove fatal in some situations. In close combat, protection, even though it added weight, was considered to matter more than speed.

Horses used in war also varied in size, depending on the type of work, the weight a horse needed to carry or pull, and the distances traveled. The average horse can carry up to approximately 25% of its body weight.^[1][2] Weight carried affected both speed and endurance. In some cultures, warriors would travel to battle riding a lighter horse of greater endurance, and then switch to a heavier horse, with greater weight-carrying capacity, when wearing heavy armor in actual combat.

Horses used for pulling vehicles varied in size, but also traded off speed for weight and power. A team of two light horses could pull a small war chariot that carried only a driver and a warrior.^[3] On the other hand, supply wagons and other support vehicles needed either heavier horses or a larger number of horses to perform the transportation duties required support military operations.^[4] While all horses can pull more than they can carry, the weight horses can pull varies widely, depending on the build of the horse, the type of vehicle, whether a vehicle rolls on wheels or is simply drug, whether it is pulled on a good road or in rough terrain, and so on.^[5] In practical terms, a modern heavy draft horse weighing about 2000 lb can pull somewhere between 1.5 tons and 9 tons, depending on conditions^[5][6][7] For example, a team of two modern draft horses can pull 4,000 lb in weight-pull competitions, dragging a unwheeled weighted sled on level dirt for a short distance^[8][9] On the other hand, horses pulling a wheeled vehicle on a paved road can pull between three to eight times their weight.^[10] The method by which a horse was hitched to a vehicle also influenced how much it could pull: Horses could pull greater weight hitched to a vehicle with a horse collar than they could with an ox yoke or a breast collar.^[4]

[edit] Light-weight horses

Light, oriental-type horses such as the ancestors of the modern Arabian, Barb, and Akhal-Teke were used for warfare that required speed, endurance and agility. Such horses ranged from about 13 hands to about 15 hands (1.32 m to 1.51 m), weighing approximately 400 to 500 kg (800 to 1000 pounds). To move quickly, riders had to use lightweight tack and carry relatively light weapons such as bows, javelins or, later, rifles. This was the original horse used for raiding, light cavalry, scouting or reconnaissance, and communications.^[3]

Light horses were used by many cultures, including the Scythians, the Parthians, the Ancient Egyptians, the Mongols, the Arabs and the American Indian. Throughout the Ancient Near East, because the first domesticated horses were small, light animals, (see domestication of the horse) teams of two or more horses were often used to pull chariots. In the European Middle Ages, the light type of horse became known as a Palfrey. Light horses sometimes carried Dragoons and Mounted infantry, depending on the amount of weight required to be carried by each soldier.

[edit] Medium-weight horses

Medium-weight horses developed with the needs of most civilizations to pull heavier loads and to carry heavier riders, beginning as early as the Iron Age.^[3] Breeds such as the ancestors of the modern Andalusian, Lipizzan, and the various Warmblood breeds got their start by the need for horses to haul chariots capable of holding more than two people, pull supply wagons, and maneuver various types of weapons, such as Horse artillery into place. As light cavalry evolved into heavy cavalry, a larger horse was also needed to carry the increased weight of a more heavily-armed and armored rider. Medium-weight horses had the greatest range in size, from about 14.2 hands to as much as 17 hands (1.47 m to 1.73 m) weighing approximately 500 to 750 kg (1,000 to 1,500 pounds). They generally were quite agile in combat, though they did not have the raw speed or endurance of a lighter horse. The heavier horses in this class were sometimes called Destriers. Horses similar to the modern warmblood often carried European Dragoons and Mounted infantry.

[edit] Heavy-weight horses

Heavy, draft-type horses were used in later periods, particularly in Europe, to pull heavy loads and to carry the heaviest-armored riders of all, the knight of the European Middle Ages. Weighing from 750 to nearly 1,000 kg (1,500 to nearly 2,000 pounds), the ancestors of breeds similar to today's modern Belgian and Shire had the muscle power to pull heavy supply wagons, albeit slowly, and to be calm under fire. Breeds at the smaller end of the heavyweight category, such as the Friesian, and Percheron carried knights, and had to be agile for their size in order to maneuver in battle. Heavier Shire-type horses were sometimes ridden in battle, but usually for jousting or short charges where power and weight made a difference and where agility and endurance were less necessary. These horses were sometimes referred to as Chargers, the "Great Horse" or war horse (in a more limited meaning). There is a dispute if the Destrier class of horse included the heaviest types.

[edit] Other Equids

Horses were not the only animals used to support human warfare. Mules, a hybrid of a horse and a donkey or ass were also commonly used, especially as pack animals and to pull wagons, though occasionally as riding animals.^[11] Mules, as a general rule, are considered both calmer and hardier than horses and so were useful for strenuous, difficult support tasks, particularly hauling food and supplies over difficult terrain. The size of a mule and work to which it was put depended largely on the breeding of the mare that produced the mule. Mules, like horses, could be lightweight, medium weight, or even, when produced from draft horse mares, of moderate heavy weight.

[edit] Training and deployment of war horses

See also horse training

The details on various methods of training horses, and war horses in particular, vary as much as the cultures and historical periods that produced them. Horse training methods were commonly passed on through an oral tradition and the number of written treatises on the subject was quite limited until the modern era. The oldest manual on training horse for chariot warfare is the work of the Hittite horsemaster, Kikkuli, who wrote on the subject circa 1350 B.C.^[4] An ancient manual on the subject of training riding horses, particularly for the Ancient Greek cavalry is Hippike On Horsemanship written about 360 B.C. by the Greek cavalry officer Xenophon, an Athenian who later lived in Sparta, where he wrote several works.^[12] One of the earliest texts from Asia was that of Kautilya, written about 323 BC. ^[4]

Whether horses were trained for pulling chariots, to be ridden as light cavalry, heavy cavalry, or as the Destrier for the heavily-armoured knight, much training was required to overcome the horse's natural instinct to flee from noise, the smell of blood, and the confusion of combat. Horses had to learn to face weaponry of the enemy and not panic, even if struck, and learn to accept any sudden or unusual movements of their riders when utilizing a weapon or avoiding one. Developing balance and agility was crucial. The origins of the discipline of Dressage came from the need to train horses to move with as much athleticism while carrying a rider as they did when free.

In most cultures, a war horse used as a riding animal was trained to be controlled with limited use of reins, responding primarily to the rider's legs and weight; to develop tolerance for the noises of battle; to become accustomed to any necessary tack and protective armour placed upon it, as well as learn to balance under a rider who would also be laden with weapons and armor. Horses used for chariot warfare were not only trained for combat conditions, but because many chariots were pulled by a team of two to four horses, they also had to learn to work together with other animals in close quarters under chaotic conditions.

In addition, some war horses were trained for specialized uses. A horse used in close combat may have been taught, or at least permitted, to kick, strike and even bite, thus becoming weapons in the extended arsenal of the warriors they carried. Other horses, used for raids or reconnaissance, were taught to remain quiet at all times, to avoid whinnying to other horses or otherwise betraying their presence.

The Haute ecole or "High School" movements of classical dressage taught to the famous Lipizzan horses at the Spanish Riding School in Vienna have their roots in maneuvers needed on the battlefield. However, it must be pointed out that modern airs above the ground were unlikely to have been used in actual combat, as most would have exposed the unprotected underbelly of the horse to the weapons of foot soldiers.^[4]

[edit] Technological innovations in equestrian equipment

See also: saddle, bridle, harness, chariot, stirrup

Horses were probably ridden in prehistory before they were driven, though evidence is scant.^[13][14] However, the invention of the wheel is widely touted as a major technological innovation that gave rise to chariot warfare. However, the demise of the chariot as a tool of war did not end the need for technological innovations in pulling technologies. Horses could pull greater weight after the invention of the horse collar circa A.D. 800 than they could when hitched to a vehicle by means of the ox yokes or breast collars used in earlier times.^[4]

Two major innovations that revolutionized the effectiveness of mounted warriors in battle were the saddle and the stirrup.

Haniwa horse statuette, complete with saddle and stirrups, 6th century, Kofun period, Japan. Tokyo National Museum

Riders quickly learned to pad their horse's backs. Warriors fought on horseback for centuries with little more than a blanket or pad on the horse's back and a rudimentary bridle. Both the Scythians and Assyrians used pads with added felt attached with a surcingle or girth around the horse's belly for increased security and comfort. Xenophon mentioned the use of a padded cloth on cavalry mounts in the fourth century B.C.^[12]

The saddle with a solid tree provided a bearing surface to protect the horse from the weight of the rider, but was not widespread until the second century A.D.^[12] However, it made a critical difference, as horses could carry more weight when distributed across a saddle tree. A solid tree also allowed a more built up seat to give the rider greater security in the saddle. The Romans are credited with the invention of the saddle.^[15]

Arguably one of the most important inventions that made cavalry particularly effective was the stirrup. While a toe loop that held the big toe was used in India possibly as early as 500 B.C.,^[4], then later a single stirrup was used as a mounting aid, the first set of paired stirrups appeared in China about A.D. 322 during the Jin Dynasty.^[16] By the 7th century, thanks primarily to invaders from Central Asia, such as the Mongols, stirrups spread across Asia to Europe.^[17]The stirrup, which allowed a rider greater leverage with weapons, as well as both increased stability and mobility while mounted, gave nomadic groups such as the Mongols a decisive military advantage.^[4] Use of stirrups was widespread in Europe by the 8th Century.^[18]

[edit] History of the horse in warfare

Greek chariot, circa 490 BCE

The first archaeological evidence of horses used in warfare was between 4000 and 3000 B.C. in the steppes of Eurasia, in what today is Ukraine, Hungary and Romania. At that location, not long after domestication of the horse, people began to live together in large fortified towns for protection from horseback-riding raiders.^[15]

Horses were used in warfare from the earliest recorded history. One of the first depictions of equids is the "war panel" of the Standard of Ur, in Sumeria, dated c. 2500 B.C., showing horses (or possibly onagers or mules) pulling a four-wheeled wagon.^[19] While the standard does not show horses in actual combat, simply pulling wagons, these equids clearly had a role to play in the victory depicted.

[edit] Chariot Warfare

The earliest documented examples of horses playing a role in combat were in chariot warfare. Early evidence of chariot use are the chariot burials of the Andronovo (Timber-Grave) sites of the Sintashta-Petrovka culture in modern Russia and Kazakhstan, dated to approximately 2000 BC.^{[citation needed]} The oldest evidence of what was probably chariot warfare in the Ancient Near East is the Old Hittite Anitta text, of the 18th century BC, which mentioned 40 teams of horses at the siege of Salatiwara.^{[citation needed]} The Hittites became well known throughout the ancient world for their prowess with the chariot.^[20]

The Hyksos invaders brought the chariot to Ancient Egypt in the 16th century B.C. and the Egyptians adopted its use from that time forward.^[3][21][22] The oldest preserved text related to the handling of war horses in the ancient worrld is the Hittite manual of Kikkuli, which dates to about 1350 BC, and describes the conditioning of chariot horses.^[4][23]

Chariots were used in China as far back as the Shang dynasty (ca. 1600-1100 BC). The earliest evidence of chariot warfare in Asia was shown by ceremonial burials. As had occurred earlier in central Asia, horses and chariots were found entombed with their owners so as to be with them in the next life.^[24]

[edit] Cavalry and other forms of mounted warfare

Some of the earliest examples of horses being ridden in warfare were archers or spear-throwers mounted on horseback, dating to the reigns of the Assyrian rulers Ashurnasirpal II and Shalmaneser III.^[14] However, these the riders sat far back on their horses, an awkward position for moving quickly, and the horses were usually held by a handler on the ground, keeping the archer free to use the bow. Thus these archers were more a type of mounted infantry than true cavalry.^[12] The Assyrians developed cavalry in response to invasions by nomadic people from the north, such as the Cimmerians, who entered Asia Minor in the 8th Century, B.C. and took over parts of Urartu during the reign of Sargon II, approximately 721 B.C.^[3] Mounted warriors such as the Scythians also had an influence on the region in the 7th century B.C.^[25] By the reign of Ashurbanipal in 669 B.C., the Assyrians had learned to sit forward on their horses in the classic position of riding still seen today and could be said to be true light cavalry.^[12] The ancient Greeks used both light horse scouts and heavy cavalry.^{[4][12][3][14]}

Heavy cavalry was believed to have been developed by the Ancient Persians.^[14] By the time of Darius (558-486 B.C.), Persian military tactics evolved to require horses and riders that were completely armored, and a heavier, more muscled horse developed to carry the additional weight.^[3] Later, The ancient Greeks developed a heavy armored cavalry, the most famous units being the companion cavalry of Alexander the Great.^[4] The Chinese began to use cavalry in response to nomadic raiders from the north and west, developing effective mounted untis by the time of the Han dynasty (206 BC-AD 220).^[24] The Romans also used heavy cavalry.

The term cataphract describes some of the tactics, armour and weaponry of mounted units used from the time of the Persians up until the Middle Ages.

[edit] War horses of the Islamic world

Battle of Higueruela, 1431. Spanish heavy cavalry fighting the light cavalry Moorish forces of Sultan Muhammed IX of Granada

Muslim warriors conquered North Africa and the Iberian peninsula during the 7th and 8th centuries A.D. Following the Hegira or Hijra of Muhammad in A.D. 622, Islam spread across the known world of the time. By A.D. 630, Muslim influence expanded across the Middle East and into North Africa. By A.D. 711, the light cavalry of Muslim warriors had reached Spain, and controlled most of the Iberian peninsula by 720. Their mounts were of various oriental types, including both the Arabian horse and the Barb horse of North Africa.

Muslim invaders reached as far north as France, where they were stopped by Charles Martel at the Battle of Tours in 732. Arabian and other oriental horses captured in the wake of this defeat were crossed with local stock, adding agility to the heavier animals, influencing the development of the Percheron, one of the breeds of horse destined to become the great Destrier of the mounted knight.

[edit] The Knight

Jousting is a sport that evolved out of heavy cavalry practice.

During the Middle Ages, the war horse increased in height and weight to accommodate heavier armoured knights. The horse ridden by William of Normandy in the Battle of Hastings in 1066 was said to be relatively large Iberian-type animal such as the modern Andalusian, at about 15.2 to 16.2 hands (1.57 m to 1.68 m) tall.^[26] Other modern breeds such as the Friesian horse may also have had ancestors used for carrying knights.^[27]

Museum Display of horse and knight plate armor c.16th or 17th century. This set may have been designed solely for ceremonial purposes. Full suits of plate armor were not used in combat after 1650. Zwinger Museum, Dresden.

As time passed, however, even larger horses, up to 17 hands (1.73 m) and 1,500 pounds, with the strength to carry both a knight and his heavy plate armour were developed. ^{[28][29] [30]} In addition to height and weight, this type of horse, known as a Destrier or Great Horse, was selected for agility and trainability. The expense of keeping, training and outfitting these specialized horses prevented the majority of the population from owning them. Modern breeds of draft horse such as Belgian, Percheron and Shire horse descended from the huge horses developed to carry full armour.^[31]

There is some question if the heaviest forms of plate armour were ever actually used in combat, or if they were confined to ceremonial uses or individual competitions such as jousting.^{[citation needed]}

Experts dispute the precise cause of the demise of the armored knight. Some claim it was the invention of gunpowder and the musket. ^[32] Others date it earlier, to the use of the English longbow that was introduced into England from Wales in 1250 and used with decisive force in conflicts such as the Battle of Crécy in 1346.^[33] In either case, although equipment became heavier and chain mail gave way to plate armor, weapons technology evolved faster yet and came to effectively counter the force of heavily-armored knights as shock troops.

[edit] Warfare in the Renaissance and Early Modern Period

With the development of muskets and other light firearms during the late Middle Ages and Renaissance, light cavalry again became useful for both battles and field communication, using fast, agile horses to move quickly across battlefields. The once-proud heavy armored horse of the medieval knight had little use in combat and was relegated to hauling cannons and wagons of supplies.

"Napoleon I with his Generals." This painting shows the light cavalry horses used as officer's mounts in 18th and 19th century European warfare.

Horses were particularly useful in the 16th century as a weapon of war for the Conquistadors. When these Spanish warriors came to the Americas and conquered the Aztec and Inca empires, horses and gunpowder provided a crucial edge. Because the horse had been extinct in the Western Hemisphere for approximately 10,000 years, the Indigenous peoples of the Americas had no warfare technologies that could overcome the considerable advantage provided by European horses and weapons. However, the American Indian people quickly learned to use horses, and the tribes of the Great Plains, such as the Comanche and the Cheyenne, became renowned horseback fighters, again demonstrating the efficiency of light cavalry, eventually becoming a considerable problem for the United States Army.

A demonstration of a saber charge by the Horse Cavalry detachment of the U.S. Army's 1st Cavalry, which demonstrating many of the tools, weapons and techniques used by the light Cavalry of the 1880s

[edit] 20th century uses and the transition to modern warfare

Horses were still seen in cavalry units during World War II, most famously when the underequipped Polish army used its cavalry to defend Poland against the armies of Nazi Germany. Contrary to Nazi propaganda of the era, the majority of Polish cavalry charges were in fact successful, and all were conducted against infantry, not tanks. The German and the Soviet armies used horses until the end the war, not only to transport ammunitions and equipment, but also for reconnaissance and counter-insurgency efforts.

Most formal mounted cavalry units were phased out as fighting forces during or immediately after World War II.^{[citation needed]} Today, formal fighting units of mounted cavalry are considered a thing of the past, with mounted horseback units within the modern military used for reconnaissance, ceremonial, or crowd control purposes. (See "Horses in the military today," below.) However, organized mounted units of armed fighters are still occasionally seen. The best-known current example are the Janjaweed militias used in the Darfur region of Sudan, who became notorious for their attacks upon unarmed civilian populations.^[34]

[edit] Horses in the military today

Horse Cavalry Detachment of the U.S. Army's 1st Cavalry Division demonstrating a mock cavalry charge at Fort Bliss, Texas^[35]

U.S. special forces troops on horseback in Afghanistan, 2001

Light cavalry remained a force on the battlefield until the 20th century. With the rise of the internal combustion engine, horses were displaced by modern tank warfare, which, ironically, is sometimes still referred to as "cavalry."

Although horses have little combat use today by modern armies, the military of many nations still maintain small numbers of mounted units for certain types of patrol and reconnaissance duties in extremely rugged terrain, including the current conflict in Afghanistan. Hungary, some British Commonwealth countries, Balkan countries, and nations that once comprised Soviet Central Asia maintain cavalry units as part of light infantry and reconnaissance formations for use in mountainous terrain or areas where fuel supply may be difficult.

Lipizzan horses in the Slovenian armed forces

Many countries throughout the world, including the United Kingdom, Canada and the United States, maintain traditionally-trained and historically uniformed cavalry units for exhibition, demonstration or educational purposes. One example is the Horse Cavalry Detachment of the U.S. Army's 1st Cavalry Division.^[36] This unit, made up of active duty soldiers, still functions as an active unit, trained to approximate the weapons, tools, equipment and techniques used by the United States Cavalry in the 1880s.^[37] The horse detachment is headquartered at Fort Hood, Texas and is charged with public relations, change of command ceremonies and public appearances.^[38] A similar detachment is the Strathcona Mounted Troop, the only regular force cavalry unit in the Canadian Army.^[39]

[edit] Modern uses of horses derived from military uses

Today, many the historical military uses of the horse have evolved into peacetime applications.

[edit] Historical reenactment

Main article: Historical reenactment

Horses are trained to be able to reenact historical battle scenes today. Examples include the Battle of Hastings reenactment and the American Civil War reenactment. Due to changes between ancient and modern horses, equipment and materials, it is sometimes difficult to create reenactments that are fully authentic with original equipment and horse breeds of the represented time, though, to the greatest extent possible, many reenactors attempt to accurately reflect details of equipment, training, weaponry and battlefield conditions.

[edit] Law enforcement

Horse Guards in London

The Police Horse is a fixture in many large cities, used for patrol and crowd control. Ceremonial horse guards, often in historical regalia, are seen in some major cities, such as London, performing traditional sentry and guard duties.

In rural areas, many Sheriff's offices have specially deputized, usually volunteer, search and rescue units who are often sent out to locate missing people.^[40] Horses can be an essential part of an overall team effort as they can move faster on the ground than a human on foot, can transport heavy equipment, and provide a more rested rescue worker when a subject is found.^[41]

[edit] Equestrian competition

The modern Olympic disciplines of eventing, show jumping, and dressage all have roots in the skills required of the light cavalry horse of the 17th through 19th centuries. Dressage is based of the works of Xenophon and his cavalry training methods, most notably On Horsemanship, but had its greatest revival during the Renaissance. Training methods were developed to create a responsive, supple horse that could quickly respond to his rider's commands, as was critical when riding on the dangerous ground of the battlefield. The Spanish Riding School of Vienna, Austria was originally created to train horses and members of the nobility for combat, but today is one of the great schools for developing horses and riders in the classical dressage tradition.

Eventing had a more recent development, first occurring in the late 1800s as a competitive endurance ride that included jumping obstacles. The discipline eventually added a dressage phase, to test the ability of the cavalry mount on the parade ground, the endurance phase, to test the mount's fitness and ability to carry messages across the countryside, traveling quickly over rough terrain, and the stadium jumping phase, as a test to ensure that the mount was still fit enough to continue after the rigors of the endurance competition. It evolved into the modern three-phase competition seen today.

Show jumping, primarily derived from the sports of fox hunting and steeplechasing as well as informal "lepping" competitions between civilian riders, is the farthest removed from direct military applications. However military units also developed jumping skills to cross formidable obstacles, crucial for carrying messages and coordinating troop movements. Leaders in the development of modern riding technique over fences, such as Fredrico Caprilli, came from military ranks.

The Olympic equestrian national teams of the modern Olympics were originally drawn exclusively from the male officer ranks of the military until 1952.^[42] After that time, both civilian and military competitors competed together until most cavalry units were disbanded in the postwar era, and today most team members are drawn almost entirely from civilian ranks. Today, the equestrian events are the only Olympic competition where men and women compete together.

The modern sport of Tent pegging is the most broadly recognized and practiced sport specifically designed to train the war horse and its rider in the skills of mounted combat.^[43][44]

[edit] References

1. ^ http://www.gaitedhorses.net/Articles/HRiderGuide.shtml
2. ^ Devereux, Frederick L. The Cavalry Manual of Horse Management, 1941
3. ^ ^{a b c d e f g} Edwards, Gladys Brown. The Arabian: War Horse to Show Horse. Arabian Horse Association of Southern California, Revised Collector's Edition, Rich Publishing, 1973.
4. ^ ^{a b c d e f g h i j k} Chamberlin, J. Edward. Horse: How the Horse Has Shaped Civilizations Bluebridge, 2006. ISBN 0974240591
5. ^ ^{a b} Russian Draft Horses "Comparison of Pulling Weights for Russian Draft Breeds" Note: Traction force of horses pulling a load, as measured by a dynamometer, can be between 50 and 300 kgf, depending on speed and distance.
6. ^ "History of the draft horse dynamometer machine"
7. ^ To get the traction force in newtons (SI units) multiply kilograms-force by 9.80665. The traction power corresponds to the friction force of the pulled object and in case additionally to its downhill-slope force.
8. ^ Eastern Draft Horse Association Rules
9. ^ [http://www.easterndrafthorse.com/2006%20results/national_championship.htm 2006 National Championships
10. ^ "History of the draft horse dynamometer machine"
11. ^ Hubbell, Gary. "21st Century Horse Soldiers." Western Horseman, December 2006, pp. 45-50
12. ^ ^{a b c d e f} Hope, Lt. Col. C.E.G. The Horseman's Manual New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1972. ISBN 684-13622-8, ch. 1 and 2.
13. ^ Asler, Wolfgang. "The Oldest Pedigree Chart." The Journal of Heredity, June 1935, pp. 233-238
14. ^ ^{a b c d} Trench, Charles Chenevix. A History of Horsemanship. Longman Group, Ltd., London, 1970, p. 16
15. ^ ^{a b} "The Horse in History" interview with Jonica Newby, Jared Diamond and David Anthony, The Science Show, broadcast 13 November 1999
16. ^ "The invention and influences of stirrup"
17. ^ "Stirrup", accessed December 4, 2006
18. ^ Dien, Albert. "The Stirrup and its Effect on Chinese Military History"
19. ^ Pritchard, James B. The Ancient Near East, Vol. 1, Princeton University Press, 1958. Illustration 97.
20. ^ The Cambridge Ancient History, vol. II, part 1, third ed., Cambridge Universtiy Press, 1975, pp. 493-495.
21. ^ Hitti, Phillip K. Lebanon in History, MacMillan and Co., London, 1957, pp. 77-78.
22. ^ The Cambridge Ancient History, vol. II, part 1, third ed., Cambridge Universtiy Press, 1975, pp. 57, 452, 458.
23. ^ The Cambridge Ancient History, vol. II, part 1, third ed., Cambridge University Press, 1975, p. 493
24. ^ ^{a b} "China - History of the Horse"
25. ^ Rice, Tamare Talbot. The Scythians, New York: Praeger, Inc.,1957
26. ^ Killingsworth, William R. "Andalusian"
27. ^ "Friesian horse"
28. ^ Id
29. ^ Alvarez, Richard P. "The Horse: Selection and Training," Mounted Combat 2000, accessed November 1, 2006
30. ^ "Shire Draft Horse
31. ^ "Shire Horse History"
32. ^ ISAAC NEWTON AND THE ASSAULT RIFLE: Body Armor Innovations. "...with the introduction of modern firearms such as the musket, full body armor was rendered obsolete almost overnight."
33. ^ Military and War Weapons the Longbow
34. ^ Lacey, Marc. "In Sudan, Militiamen on Horses Uproot a Million." New York Times, May 4, 2004
35. ^ [1]
36. ^ First Team! Horse Cavalry Detachment
37. ^ Hubbell, Gary. "21st Century Horse Soldiers." Western Horseman, December 2006, pp. 45-50
38. ^ Id.
39. ^ http://www.hood.army.mil/1cd_horsedet/canada_02.html
40. ^ Northwest Horseback Search and Rescue. Example of a mounted search and rescue organization in the state of Washington, USA
41. ^ Why Search on Horseback? Northwest Horseback Search and Rescue web site, accessed November 9, 2006
42. ^ "Olympic History", United Kingdom Olympic Association, retrieved 08 November 2006
43. ^ "Tent pegging recognised by the FEI", International Federation for Equestrian Sports, 2004, retrieved 08 November 2006
44. ^ "Tent pegging with the GGHG Canadian Household Cavalry", Practical Idealism, 2006, retrieved 08 November 2006

[edit] Bibliography

• Anthony, David W. (1998). "The opening of the Eurasian steppe at 2000 BC." In The Bronze Age and Early Iron Age Peoples of Eastern Central Asia, ed. Victor H. Mair, vol. 1. (Journal of Indo-European Studies Monograph 26). Washington, D.C.: The Institute for the Study of Man.
• Bennett, Deb. Conquerors: The Roots of New World Horsemanship. Amigo Publications Inc; 1st edition 1998. ISBN 0-9658533-0-6
• Chamberlin, J. Edward. Horse: How the Horse Has Shaped Civilizations. Bluebridge, 2006, p. 166-167 ISBN 0-9742405-9-1
• Edwards, Gladys Brown. The Arabian: War Horse to Show Horse. Arabian Horse Association of Southern California, Revised Collector's Edition, Rich Publishing, 1973.

[edit] See also

• Horses in Warfare
• Kikkuli
• Xenophon
• cavalry
• cavalry tactics
• chariot
• chariot tactics
• Classical dressage
• Equestrianism

[edit] External links

• The Institute for Ancient Equestrian Studies (IAES)
• New Riders of the Golden Age Modern performers of authentic full contact jousts on Belgian, Percheron, Shire, and Clydesdale horses.
• The British Cavalry Regiments of 1914-1918 The British Cavalry Regiments of 1914-1918
• The Spanish Mustang Registry (preservers of the warhorse of ancient Spain)
• United States Dressage Federation
• Home Page of the Spanish Riding School of Vienna, where the "high school" art of Dressage preserves the ancient movements and maneuvers of the war horse.
• Manual about horses in the battle of Hastings reenactment