Homelessness in the United States

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Contents 1 Definition 2 Statistics and demographics 3 Historical background 3.1 Pre-1960s 3.2 1960s, 1970s 3.3 1980s 3.4 1990s 3.5 2000s 4 Causes 4.1 Structural factors 4.2 Personal factors 4.3 Other factors 4.4 Fighting poverty 4.5 Additional issues 5 Homeless assistance programs 5.1 Programs 5.2 Policies 5.3 Target 6 Criminalization and hate crimes 6.1 Criminalizing homelessness 6.2 Crimes against homeless people 6.3 Responses 7 Overview 8 Situations in specific U.S. cities 9 Near-homeless: disabled non-abusers have little safety net 9.1 American hobo slang 10 References 11 Bibliography 12 See also 13 External links

[edit] Definition

While there is no one agreed upon definition, one definition originally developed as part of the McKinney-Vento Act of 1987 federal legislation,^[1] describes a "homeless" person as being:

1. an individual who lacks a fixed, regular, and adequate nighttime residence;
2. and an individual who has a primary nighttime residence that is--
   1. a supervised publicly or privately operated shelter designed to provide temporary living accommodations (including welfare hotels, congregate shelters, and transitional housing for the mentally ill);
   2. an institution that provides a temporary residence for individuals intended to be institutionalized; or
   3. a public or private place not designed for, or ordinarily used as, a regular sleeping accommodation for human beings.

Critics argue that such a definition does not account for all of those who are in-effect homeless, and therefore excludes many needy individuals from certain federal assistance programs who do not meet eligibility requirements. Proponents of an expanded definition of homelessness cite certain at-risk living situations which some believe should be included:

• Multiple families (or individuals) doubling or tripling up in insufficient living space. One of many documented incidents reports 25 individuals sharing a single house.^[2]
• Weekly “rental” of economy motel rooms. With a growing lack of affordable housing across the country, low-wage earners are increasingly residing in cheap (and often ill-maintained) motels.^[3]
• Individuals living in their automobiles. Often the vehicles used in such a manner do not even operate but simply provide shelter from the elements.
• Exclusive “couch-surfers.” Instead of sleeping on the streets or in a shelter, otherwise homeless persons are forced to rely on the hospitality of willing friends or family for a place to sleep. Patience for such arrangements often runs dry, and many soon find themselves without a place to stay.

Lastly, there is discrepancy over which defined segments of the homeless population are most in need. The federal government is currently promoting a 10-year plan approach to end homelessness which targets those who are “chronically” homeless—defined as, “An unaccompanied homeless individual with a disabling condition who has either been continuously homeless for a year or has had at least four (4) episodes of homelessness in the past three (3) years.”^[4] Many direct service providers are concerned that such a definition will exclude the majority of those who experience homelessness from receiving needed services.

This definition is not satisfactory to many providers, researchers and advocates, because it misses the population of "hidden homeless" who are currently doubling-up with family or friends. Some advocates also want "homelessness" to include those at serious risk of homelessness, but not yet experiencing it.

For a written account on homelessness in the United States, see Kusmer's Down and Out, On the Road. For an analysis of causes of homelessness, see Jencks' The Homeless and O'Flaherty's Making Room: The Economics of Homelessness.

[edit] Statistics and demographics

Completely accurate and comprehensive statistics are difficult to acquire for any social study, but especially so when measuring the ambiguous, hidden, and erratic reality of homelessness. All figures given are estimates. In addition, these estimates represent overall national averages; the proportions of specific homeless communities can vary substantially depending on local geography.

The mobile and often hidden nature of homelessness makes this group difficult to accurately survey. The last rigorous attempt at estimating annual homeless prevalence in the United States was undertaken by the 1996 National Survey of Homeless Assistance Providers and Clients (NSHAPC).^[5] Annual homeless prevalence was estimated at between 1.58 million (based on October/November four-week count) to 3.49 million (based on February seven day count).^[6] Most, though not all, advocates use the higher estimate of over 3 million, especially since homelessness is thought to have risen since 1996.

Lifetime homeless prevalence measured in 1990 by Bruce Link and colleagues found 7.4% or 13.5 million people reported experiencing literal homelessness.^[7] These estimates were tabulated from telephone interviews and thus most likely excluded all currently homeless individuals.

Some estimates from various sources on the characteristics and number of homeless people:

Total Number

• As many as 3.5 million people experience homelessness in a given year (1% of the entire U.S. population or 10% of its poor), and about 842,000 people on any given day.^[8]

Familial composition^[9]

• 40% are families with children—the fastest growing segment.
• 41% are single males.
• 14% are single females.
• 5% are minors unaccompanied by adults.

1.37 million (or 39%) of the total homeless population are children under the age of 18.^[10]

Ethnicity^[11]

• 49% are African American (compared to 11% of general population).
• 35% are Caucasian (compared to 75% of general population).
• 13% are Hispanic (compared to 10% of general population).
• 2% are Native American (compared to 1% of general population).
• 1% are Asian-American (compared to 3% of general population).

Health-concerns^[12]

• 22% are considered to have serious mental illnesses, or are disabled.
• 30% have substance abuse problems.
• 3% report having HIV/AIDS.
• 26% report acute health problems other than HIV/AIDS such as tuberculosis, pneumonia, or sexually transmitted infections.
• 46% report chronic health conditions such as high blood pressure, diabetes, or cancer.
• 55% report having no health insurance (compared to 16% of general population).
• 58% report having trouble getting enough food to eat.

Backgrounds^[13]

• 23% are veterans (compared to 13% of general population).
• 25% were physically or [sexual abuse|sexually abused] as children.
• 27% were in foster care or similar institutions as children.
• 21% were homeless at some point during their childhood.
• 54% were incarcerated at some point in their lives.

Education^[14]

• 38% have less than a High School diploma.
• 34% have a High School diploma or equivalent (G.E.D.).
• 28% have more than a High School education.

Employment^[15]

• 44% report having worked in the past week.
• 13% have regular jobs.
• 50% receive less than $300 per month as income.

Location^[16]

• 71% reside in central cities.
• 21% are in suburbs.
• 9% are in rural areas.

Duration^[17]

• 80% of those who experience homelessness do so for less than 3 weeks. They typically have more personal, social, or economic resources to draw upon.
• 10% are homeless for up to two months. They cite lack of available or affordable housing as responsible for the delay.
• 10% are so called “chronic” and remain without housing for extended periods of time on a frequent basis. They typically struggle with mental illness, substance abuse, or both.

Somewhat different data seem to be presented in the full demographics reported in the 1996 NSHAPC survey which include:

Family status

• 61% Single men
• 15% Single women
• 12.2% Women with children
• 4.6% Other women
• 5.3% Other men
• 2.3% Men with children

Racial demographics of head of household

• 41% White, non-Hispanic
• 40% Black, non-Hispanic
• 11% Hispanic
• 8% Native American
• 1% Other

Length of current homeless period

• 5% Less than one week
• 8% Greater than one week, less than one month
• 15% One to three months
• 11% Four to six months
• 15% Seven to twelve months
• 16% Thirteen to twenty four months
• 10% Twenty-five to sixty months
• 20% Five or more years

Lifetime self-reported alcohol, drug and mental health problems

• 62% Alcohol
• 58% Drug
• 57% Mental health
• 27% Mental health and alcohol or drug (dual diagnosed)

[edit] Historical background

[edit] Pre-1960s

In general, many towns and cities had an area which contained the poor, transients, and afflicted, such as a "skid row". In New York City, for example, there was an area known as "The Bowery", traditionally, where alcoholics were to be found sleeping on the streets, bottle in hand. This resulted in rescue missions, such as the oldest homeless shelter in New York City, The Bowery Mission, founded in 1879 by the Rev. and Mrs. A.G. Ruliffson.^[18]

In smaller towns, there were hobos, who temporarily lived near train tracks and hopped onto trains to various destinations. Especially following the American Civil War, a large number of homeless men formed part of a counterculture known as "hobohemia" all over America.^[19]

Although not specifically about the homeless, Jacob Riis wrote about, documented, and photographed the poor and destitute in New York City tenements in the late 1800s. He wrote a ground-breaking book including such material in "How the Other Half Lives" in 1890. Public awareness was raised by this, causing some changes in building codes and some social conditions.

[edit] 1960s, 1970s

In the United States, in the late 1970s, the deinstitutionalisation of patients from state psychiatric hospitals was a precipitating factor which seeded the homeless population, especially in urban areas such as New York City.^[20]

The Community Mental Health Act of 1963 was a pre-disposing factor in setting the stage for homelessness in the United States.^[21] Long term psychiatric patients were released from state hospitals into SROs and sent to community health centers for treatment and follow-up. It never quite worked out properly and this population largely was found living in the streets soon thereafter with no sustainable support system.^[22][23]

In 1969, Paul Sullivan, a real estate developer and himself a recovering alcoholic, founded The Pine Street Inn, in Boston, to care for homeless destitute alcoholics, and get them back into society.^[24][25] He was awarded The Isaac Hecker Award for Social Justice in 1980 for this work.^[26][27]

In 1979, a New York City lawyer, Robert Hayes, brought a class action suit before the courts, Callahan v. Carey, against the City and State, arguing for a person's state constitutional "right to shelter". It was settled as a consent decree in August 1981. The City and State agreed to provide board and shelter to all homeless men who met the need standard for welfare or who were homeless by certain other standards. By 1983 this right was extended to homeless women.

[edit] 1980s

Although homelessness has existed in this country since its inception, most experts in the field generally agree that modern homelessness began in the United States in the 1980s. During Ronald Reagan’s duel-term presidency (1981-1989) a variety of drastic budget reductions are credited with undermining many urban populations, most notably those of poor and minority demographics. In 1980 federal dollars accounted for 22% of big city budgets, but by 1989 the same such aid composed only 6% of urban revenue (part of larger 60% decrease in federal spending to support local governments).^[28] It is largely (although not exclusively) in these urban areas that homelessness became widespread and reached unprecedented numbers. Critics of Reagan identify several main policy shifts as fundamental in the sharp rise of homelessness.

Most notable were cuts to federal low-income housing programs. In his first year of office Reagan halved the budget for public housing and Section 8 (the government’s housing voucher subsidization program). Between the years of 1980 and 1989 HUD’s budget authority was reduced from $74 billion to $19 billion.^[29] Such changes resulted in an inadequate supply of affordable housing to meet the growing demand of low-income populations. In 1970 there were 300,000 more low-cost rental units (6.5 million) than low-income renter households (6.2 million). By 1985 the number of low-cost units had fallen to 5.6 million, and the number of low-income renter households had grown to 8.9 million, a disparity of 3.3 million units^[30]

The 1980s also saw a continuing trend of deinstitutionalizing mental-health hospitals. It is believed that a large percentage of these released patients ended up in the homeless system.

In response to the ensuing homelessness crisis of the 1980s, concerned citizens across the country demanded that the federal government provide assistance. After many years of advocacy and numerous revisions, Reagan signed into law the McKinney-Vento Homeless Assistance Act in 1987—this remains the only piece of federal legislation that allocates funding to the direct service of homeless people.

By the mid-1980s, there was also a dramatic increase in family homelessness. Tied into this was an increasing number of impoverished and runaway children, teenagers, and young adults, which created a new sub-stratum of the homeless population.

In August 1988, a riot erupted in Tompkins Square Park when police brutally attempted to enforce a newly-passed curfew for the park, largely in an attempt to evict the homeless who were living in the park. Bystanders, artists, residents, homeless people and political activists were caught up in the police action that took place on the night of August 6th and the early morning of August 7th. The event has become known as the Tompkins Square Park Police Riot.^[31]

Several organisations in some cities, such as New York and Boston, tried to be inventive about help to the swelling number of homeless people. In New York City, for example, in 1989, the first street newspaper was created called "Street News" which put some homeless to work, some writing, producing, and mostly selling the paper on streets and trains.^[32] It was written pro bono by a combination of homeless, celebrities, and established writers.

[edit] 1990s

The McKinney-Vento Act paved the way for service providers in the coming years. During the 1990s homeless shelters, soup kitchens, and other supportive services sprouted up in cities and towns across the nation. However, despite these efforts and the dramatic economic growth marked by this decade, homeless numbers remained stubbornly high. It became increasingly apparent that simply providing services to alleviate the symptoms of homelessness (i.e. shelter beds, hot meals, psychiatric counseling, etc.), although needed, were not successful at solving the root causes of homelessness. However, critics claim that Bill Clinton’s 1996 welfare reforms increased the number of families entering homelessness.^{[citation needed]} At any rate, policies set into motion in the 1980s were never adequately reversed during the Bush Senior or Clinton administrations; conditions, therefore, remained ripe for becoming homeless.^{[citation needed]}

[edit] 2000s

In 2002, research showed that children and families were the largest growing segment of the homeless in America,^[33][34] and this has presented new challenges, especially in services, to agencies. Back in the 1990s, a teenager from New York, Liz Murray, was homeless at fifteen years old, and overcame that and went on to study at Harvard University. Her story was made into an Emmy-winning film in 2003, "Homeless to Harvard".

The Interagency Council on Homelessness (ICH), the federal branch responsible for overseeing homeless policy that was created under the McKinney-Vento Act, is now attempting a new approach to combat homelessness. For the first time, government officials are calling for an end to homelessness. To accomplish this goal ICH has adopted a strategy largely devised by the National Alliance to End Homelessness (one of many homeless advocacy organizations), which centers on the production and implementation of local 10-year plans to end chronic homelessness. The idea is to get all of the necessary parties—local/state governmental agencies, businesses, non-profit organizations, service providers, faith-based entities, and homeless (or formally so) individuals—working in collaboration to devise and implement a 10-year plan for their respective community.^[35]

Rather than channeling funds into direct services that seemingly sustain homeless lifestyles, these result-oriented plans are designed to focus efforts and funds on the creation of permanent supportive housing (PSH) for the most troubled and difficult, “chronic” homeless population. Considering that it is actually cheaper to house someone than it is to fund the otherwise needed myriad services, this approach is touted as being a cost-effective solution.^[36]

Many service providers applaud the government’s focus on ending homelessness, as opposed to managing it, and realize the necessity of incorporating all sectors of society in order to accomplish such a goal. However, critics express concern that the majority of the homeless population, who are not considered “chronic,” will be neglected; if federal funds are stipulated only for this 10% demographic—although no doubt deserving—what will become of the other 90%? These concerns are exacerbated by a failure to receive sufficient additional allocations while already struggling with budgets spread extremely thin.

Presently, no plan has been in effect for a full 10-years so achievement is difficult to gauge; the best indications reveal mixed success. Although many cities have seen chronic numbers dip, it is unclear whether or not homelessness as a whole is decreasing. The hope is that necessary modifications can be made to existing plans, and that newly devised plans can implement the strategies that work and avoid the ones that don’t.

[edit] Causes

In the simplest terms, a household becomes homeless when its provider(s) can no longer pay for housing, and this phenomenon happens overwhelmingly among the poorest of the nation. Therefore, experts in the field see a direct correlation between recent increases in poverty levels and increases in homelessness. In an attempt to understand why some people in poverty experience homelessness, and why some don’t, both structural and personal dynamics must be considered.

[edit] Structural factors

Housing Opportunities

There are three aspects of the current housing market that are as equally pivotal in causing homelessness:

1. Housing costs, particularly for rental housing which disproportionately affect lower income households, are rising drastically. In the five years 1999 through 2004, rental price of primary residences rose by 19% and the consumer price index (CPI-U) rose by only 13%^[37]--the price of housing, in other words, is outpacing the rate of inflation. There is not a single jurisdiction in the country where a person working 40 hours a week, 52 weeks a year at the prevailing minimum wage can afford a one-bedroom apartment.^[38] Aside from just low wage earners, many workers cannot afford to live where they work, and even in moderately priced communities housing costs continually require a larger portion of a household’s annual income.^[39]
2. Although residential construction has been robust in recent years, zoning and the implementation of rent controls has reduced the profitability of constructing low income housing. In 2003 there was a supply deficiency of 1.7 million units of housing to meet the demand of 7.7 million extremely low income (ELI) renting households.^[40]
3. Government housing-assistance programs are massively over-burdened. Currently, only one-fourth of all eligible families receive any federal housing assistance due to program funding constraints,^[41] and the average wait for Section 8 vouchers is 35 months.^[42]

Health care opportunities

In 2004, 45.8 million Americans (or 15.7% of the population) were without health insurance, which was an increase from the year before, and was disproportionately represented by poor households.^[43] The U.S. spends 16% of its GDP on health care, more than any other industrialized nation, and those countries provide health insurance to all of their citizens.^[44]

1. Heath care costs are skyrocketing. In 2004, total national health expenditures rose 7.9 percent—over three times the rate of inflation—and since 2000, employment-based health insurance premiums have increased 73%.^[45]
2. People working low wage jobs, even if they work full-time, are less likely to be provided with health insurance. For example, Wal-Mart—the largest employer in the nation—does not provide health coverage for over half of its employees, who on average earn $8.23 an hour.^[46]
3. Without health insurance and under increasing medical costs, unexpected health emergencies or serious chronic illnesses can quickly overburden the resources of poor households.

[edit] Personal factors

• Untreated mental illness, and disability can cause individuals to become paranoid, anxious, or depressed, making it difficult or impossible to maintain employment, pay bills, or keep supportive social relationships.
• Substance abuse can drain financial resources, cause job or housing loss, and erode supportive social relationships.
• Lack of education, such as dropping out of school which in turn is an obstacle in finding a high paying job and residence.
• Co-occurring disorders. Individuals with co-occurring mental illnesses and substance use disorders are among the most susceptible to the above mentioned loses.
• Many people (especially women and often with children) who flee from domestic violence oftentimes must quickly adapt to massive life changes. Many find it extremely difficult to secure a new place of residence and/or a job.
• Institutional release. Most individuals being discharged from prison have few resources to “get back on their feet” and have eroded personal contacts that may provide support. Youths who “age out” of systems such as foster care often find themselves without needed support networks.

[edit] Other factors

Lastly, it should be mentioned that some people find themselves homeless due to unexpected extenuating circumstances:

• Natural disasters: Many people lose their homes to any variety of natural catastrophes including but not limited to: floods, forest fires, storms, and earthquakes. In 2005 hurricanes Katrina and Rita displaced over 1 million Americans. Tornadoes destroyed entire towns in Tennessee in 2006.

• Unexpected emergencies: A variety of people find themselves unable to cope with any number of the following sudden tragedies: being laid off from a long-term place of employment; losing their place of residence to an accidental fire; serious bodily injuries; discovery of terminal illnesses or diseases; loss of family member(s). These situations usually result not only in significant monetary expenses, but also in severe psychological and emotional hardships.

[edit] Fighting poverty

If homelessness is inextricably linked to poverty, then without alleviation of the most crippling aspects of poverty, homelessness can never be effectively ended. In particular, three main concerns are the focus of both governmental and non-governmental (NGO) efforts to end homelessness:

More affordable housing

Homeless individuals report a lack of affordable housing as the number one reason for becoming homeless.^[47] This inadequacy must be remedied in order to get people off the streets and out of shelters. Many non-profit organizations are in operation to serve this need—for example, the National Low Income Housing Coalition—but most lack the funding necessary to create enough housing. Several proposed policy measures are designed to secure such funding, such as the National Housing Trust Fund, but these have not been signed into law.

Livable wages

Homeless individuals report a lack of adequate pay as the number two reason for becoming homeless.^[48] As housing costs have continued to rise and the value of wages has either declined or remained stagnate, the poor are increasingly unable to afford whatever housing is available. Many campaigns promote a living wage that would increase pay to an amount purported to cover living expenses. Since the cost of living (especially that of housing) varies widely from area-to-area there is discrepancy over how much wages should be increased. One campaign, the Universal Living Wage, offers a unique formula that indexes the base wage of a particular locality with its respective cost of housing.

Comprehensive health care

Homeless individuals report mental illness as being the number three reason for becoming or staying homeless.^[49] Such illnesses are often closely linked with the fourth reason—substance abuse—and therefore it is generally accepted that both of these issues should be treated simultaneously. Although many medical, psychiatric, and counseling services exist to address these needs, it is commonly believed that without the support of reliable and stable housing such treatments remain ineffective. Furthermore, in the absence of a universal health-care plan, many of those in need cannot afford such services. Legislation such as the Brining America Home Act, if enacted, would provide comprehensive and available treatment for all.

Paradigm shift

A significant paradigm has occurred in homeless services over the past five years which has began to shift the emphasis from "managing the problem of homelessness" with emergency shelters, soup kitchens and health clinic to ending homelessness by housing individuals who are experiencing homelessness. In 2001, the National Alliance to End Homelessness [13] released "A Plan to End Homelessness" which encouraged communities to develop and implement a 10 year plan to end or reduce homelessness in their communities.

Key effective programs include:

• Shelter Plus Care - a federal program that provides housing subsidies and are matched by local funds to provide long-term supportive services (typically case management). Experience demonstrated that many individuals who have been homeless for a significant time often lose their housing shortly after placement. The Shelter Plus Care program provides long-term supports including working with the landlord to keep the individual housed.

• Housing First - a service paradigm that assumes that individuals who are homeless are "ready" to be housed immediately and with appropriate supports can retain their housing. The Pathways to Housing project in New York demonstrated a five-year housing retention rate of 88 percent among formerly homeless individuals with serious mental illness. Many homeless people are required to participate in year-long plus substance abuse, mental health, and life skills programs when they don't even have those problems. Many people only need decent housing to get back on their feet. Central City Concern's (Portland, OR) Shoreline Project allows homeless unemployed men to move into SRO type single person studios and find a job within 70 days; it's been a great success with expected expansion of the program in 2007.

• Assertive Outreach - a form of engagement and outreach that emphasizes building a bond of trust between the case worker and the individual. Engagement is highly individualized with the pace dictated by the individual in need. Case workers do not force rules, regulations or program services until they are requested. Typically used to engage homeless, mentally ill individuals.

[edit] Additional issues

The present difficultly is to address these root issues while at the same time providing for the real and immediate needs of people experiencing homelessness. Many service providing organizations (including governmental departments) feel pulled between the need to provide shelter, food, and health-care, but also ensure that affordable housing and adequate wages are made available. Furthermore, those that provide direct service for the homeless often feel they are forced to “clean-up” the failures and shortcomings of other institutions that are not being held accountable. Most notably, people from this position assert that the discharge policies of both prisons and foster care programs often leave those exiting such institutions with no other option than homelessness. Such topics must be addressed in the fight to end homelessness.

Lastly, many critics of social policy assert that a failure to live responsibly and a lack of determination are what place and keep people in homeless situations. Such thinking is largely accredited with fueling a stigmatization of homelessness. It is not uncommon for Americans to think of homeless individuals as lazy, apathetic, immoral, irresponsible, unintelligent, or worthless. Such people typically believe it is only by choice that people are homeless and therefore they can choose not to be if they so desire. As such, there often exists considerable tension and resentment between those that are housed and those that are not. Many Americans complain about the presence of homeless people, and feel that their requests for money or support (usually via begging) are unjustified. Likewise, many homeless people feel they are ignored, despised, or even hated. Most who experience such treatment report low self-esteem, depression, and anger. It is often thought that such feelings encourage substance abuse and/or exacerbate mental-health issues, which in turn increase the difficultly of functioning within mainstream society (i.e. holding a job, paying bills, maintaining relationships). In this way, the series of events—whether substance abuse/mental illness caused, or resulted from, homelessness—is contested and inconclusive. Some believe these social views provide an obstacle to the elimination of poverty.

[edit] Homeless assistance programs

Twenty years ago there was not wide-spread homelessness in America. ^{[citation needed]} On any given night, as of 2006, nearly a million people will be homeless, despite a two billion dollar a year infrastructure designed to deal with the problem.^{[citation needed]} Even in the face of 1990s economic prosperity, homeless statistics show the number of homeless has remained high. Homelessness in America persists in part because many urban areas remain economically depressed. Housing costs are rising and wages remain the same. The most proximate cause of homelessness is poverty. The homeless spend more time in hospitals and jails but are usually reluctant to accept help and transitional housing. The following programs and policies attack the problem of homelessness, provide help to the homeless, and prevent further growth of the homeless population.

[edit] Programs

Housing

Many programs that are designed to assist the homeless population have incorporated some type of housing program for their clients. Whether it is a transitional, permanent or even emergency housing program, the assistance is often provided for a very low cost and maybe even free. Volunteers of America is an agency that believes preventing family homelessness is a critical part of their organization. Through Volunteers of America, transitional housing and emergency shelters are available to those who are in desperate need. In the United States each year, there are around 3.5million people who live their lives without shelter or a stable occupation. For 2006 alone, $28.5 billion is being allotted to homeless programs ran through HUD (Housing and Urban Development). $1 billion is being given for Section 8 housing, and $1.4 billion is being used for Homeless Assistance Grants. The two main types of housing programs provided for homeless people are:

• Transitional

Transitional housing programs are operated with one goal in mind– to help individuals and families obtain permanent housing as quickly as possible. Transitional housing programs assist homeless for a fixed amount of time or until they are able to obtain housing on their own and function successfully in the community, or whichever comes first.

• Permanent

For a significant number of homeless Americans with mental or physical impairments, often coupled with drug and/or alcohol use issues, long-term homelessness can only be ended by providing permanent housing coupled with intensive supportive services. Permanent housing provides a “base” for people to move out of poverty.

Substance abuse prevention

Without supportive services, housing is not often enough to end homelessness. Various agencies, in fact all homeless prevention agencies and programs include substance abuse recovery and prevention programs. Objectives are to provide substance abuse counseling and access to treatment centers.

Self-sufficiency

For a significant number of homeless Americans with mental or physical impairments, often coupled with drug and/or alcohol use issues, long-term homelessness can only be ended by providing permanent housing coupled with intensive supportive services.

Communications

Most homeless people have no means of communications with the outside world. Few have access to a phone to make or receive calls, get voice messages, send or receive email. Many support organisations provide some limited local phone access, voice mail, and internet computers with email. This is critical in the modern world for medical appointment verification, job and services searches.^[50]

[edit] Policies

There are several policies dealing with homelessness. In 1980 the government decided to start sending funding to the homeless, but it was not until 1984 that shelters were built to accommodate and feed them. At it was shown though seventy percent required the homeless to attend a religious ceremony and spend only a couple of nights there. In the 1987 McKinney Act the problem with homelessness became known as a huge social problem. Later on, the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 (P.L. 107-110) amended the program explicitly to prohibit states that receive McKinney-Vento funds from segregating homeless students from non-homeless students, except for short periods of time for health and safety emergencies or to provide temporary, special, supplementary services. The Chronic Homelessness Initiative. The Bush Administration has established a national goal of ending chronic homelessness in 10 years, by 2012. The idea of a 10-year plan to end chronic homelessness began as a part of a 10-year plan to end homelessness in general adopted by the National Alliance to End Homelessness (NAEH) in 2000. The following year, then-Secretary Martinez announced HUD’s commitment to ending chronic homelessness at the NAEH annual conference. In 2002, as a part of his FY2003 budget, President Bush made “ending chronic homelessness in the next decade a top objective.” The bi-partisan, congressionally-mandated, Millennial Housing Commission, in its Report to Congress in 2002, included ending chronic homelessness in 10 years among its principal recommendations. By 2003, the Interagency Council on Homelessness had been re-engaged12 and charged with pursuing the President’s 10-year plan. The Administration has recently undertaken some collaborative efforts to reach its goal of ending chronic homelessness in 10 years. On October 1, 2003, the Administration announced the award of over $48 million in grants aimed at serving the needs of the chronically homeless through two initiatives. The Ending Chronic Homelessness through Employment and Housing initiative was a collaborative grant offered jointly by HUD and the Department of Labor (DOL). The initiative offered $10 million from HUD and $3.5 million from DOL to help the chronically homeless in five communities gain access to employment and permanent housing. Section 8 is the core housing program that helps extremely low-income families accommodate the gap between their incomes below 30 percent of the median income for each community. The government assists homeless families by awarding grants and vouchers. Vouchers are available to the families who are most needy and they are used to pay for housing found in the private market. Currently there are policy changes in who receives vouchers and there will be a reduction in the amount of vouchers granted to the homesless population.

[edit] Target

• Women

Due to the increase of homeless women with children, there is growing interest in providing shelter and rehabilitaion for this group of individuals. One of the primary sources of funding for women (almost always including children) is TANF-Temporary Assistance for Needy Families. Funds are allocated for programs that enforce child-support, education, domestic abuse and housing most importantly.

• Children

Unaccompanied homeless youth between the ages of 16 and 24 have been estimated to make up as much as 12 percent of the homeless population. Numerous studies of homeless youth have found experiences of physical and sexual abuse, parental drug or alcohol use, childhood homelessness, foster care, and juvenile detention. Critics contend mainstream homeless programs fail to meet the unique needs of homeless youth. Ending youth homelessness requires a coordinated effort involving a variety of services including support for youth discharged from foster care and the juvenile justice system, access to education for youth at risk of becoming homeless, and additional research to help advocates better understand the needs of homeless youth.

• Families

Each homeless client is an adult representing a homeless household. 15 percent of these are family households (that is, the clients have one or more of their own children under age 18 with them). On average, each homeless family household includes 2.2 minor children of the client.

[edit] Criminalization and hate crimes

[edit] Criminalizing homelessness

Directly related to the above-mentioned stigmatization is a growing trend in the United States towards criminalizing the state of being homeless.^[51] Proponents of this approach believe that punitive measures will deter people from “choosing” to be homeless. To this end, cities across the country increasingly outlaw life-sustaining activities—such as sleeping, eating, sitting, and begging—in public spaces, and selectively enforce more neutral laws—such as those prohibiting open containers or loitering—against homeless populations.^[52] Violators of such laws typically incur criminal penalties, which result in fines and/or incarceration. Many believe this trend is a manifestation of so-called NIMBYism, or Not In My Back Yard syndrome—an unofficial policy that tolerates social nuisances (like homelessness) as long as they are not visible or intrusive in a particular community. Homeless people with new "criminal charges" have very restrictive housing and employment options, if either, for years.

[edit] Crimes against homeless people

Many observers believe that stigmatization, criminalization, and NIMBY thinking have produced an atmosphere susceptible to hate crimes against homeless individuals.^{[citation needed]} Recent years have seen a growing number of violent acts committed upon people experiencing homelessness—the rate of such documented crimes in 2005 was 30% higher than of those in 1999.^[53] Perhaps most astonishing is that 75% of all perpetrators are under the age of 25. Recent homemade-style films, such as the Bumfights series (started in 2002), give testament to this trend. Although the reasons for such targeted violence are not fully know, it is generally agreed that perpetrators either feel justified in their actions, or are not worried about the possibilities of prosecution.

In recent years, largely due to the efforts of the National Coalition for the Homeless (NCH) and academic researchers, the problem of violence against the homeless has gained national attention. In Hate, Violence, and Death on Mainstreet USA, the NCH reported 386 violent acts committed against homeless persons over the 1999-2004 period, among which 156 were lethal. The NCH called those acts hate crimes (they retain the definition of the American Congress). They insist that so called bumfight videos disseminate hate against the homeless and dehumanize them. The Center for the Study of Hate & Extremism (CSHE) at California State University, San Bernardino in conjunction with the NCH found that while 155 homeless people were killed by domiciled people in "hate killings" from 1999-2004, only 76 people were killed in all the other traditional hate crime homicide categories, such as race and religion, combined. The CSHE contends that negative and degrading portrayals of the homeless contribute to a climate where violence takes place. Various studies and surveys indicate that homeless people have a much higher criminal victimization rate than domiciled people, but that most incidents never get reported to authorities. On October 1, 2006 CBS News 60 Minutes telecast a story on "thrill" violence against the homeless and "Bumfights" videos.

[edit] Responses

Critics of homeless criminalization claim that such measures do nothing to actually solve homelessness and in fact make-matters-worse. Homeless people find it harder to secure employment, housing, or federal benefits with a criminal record, and therefore penalizing the act of being homeless makes exiting such a situation much more difficult. In fact, a recent federal appeals court ruled anti-homeless laws in Los Angeles as unconstitutional, thereby asserting the illegitimacy of targeting legislation against people who do not have a normal residence.^[54] Similarly, in response to growing reports of hate crimes, some state governments have proposed the addition of “people experiencing homelessness” to their hate-crimes statutes. Many credit the advocacy work of organizations such as the National Coalition for the Homeless—which publishes annual reports documenting both hate crimes^[55] and criminalization^[56] trends—for shedding light on these largely neglected issues.

[edit] Overview

Observers of modern homelessness often cite some of the following potential causes of homelessness:

• The movement in the 1960s in state mental health systems to shift towards community-based treatment as opposed to long-term commitment in institutions. Unfortunately, absent local community housing programs, many patients ended up in the streets.
• The failure of urban housing projects to provide safe, secure, and affordable housing to the poor.
• The economic crises and "stagflation" of the 1970s, which caused high unemployment. Unlike European countries, US unemployment insurance does not allow unemployed insurance recipients to obtain job training/education while receiving benefits except under very limited situations.
• The failure of the U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs to provide effective mental health care and meaningful job training for many homeless veterans, particularly those of the Vietnam War. Many VA critics think homeless veterans are cycled through ineffective VA 12-step programs, restricting housing programs, and low skilled job training programs that actually keeps them cycling from program to program and back to living on the streets.

According to the U.S. Conference of Mayors, the demand for emergency shelter in 270 U.S. cities increased 13% in 2001 and 25% in 2005. 22 percent of those requesting emergency shelter were turned away. With budgets squeezed dry, cities across the U.S. adopted a closed-door attitude toward the displaced. For example:

• The Port Authority of New York and New Jersey banned panhandling in PATH subway stations and bus terminals;
• In Atlanta, Georgia, Mayor Maynard Jackson proposed a policy of licensing panhandlers, it was not adopted.
• The University of California, Berkeley ordered repeated police sweeps of People's Park and evicted the People's Cafe soup kitchen.
• In Santa Cruz, California, dozens of homeless were repeatedly arrested for sleeping outside the local United States Post Office.

Traditionally single men have constituted the overwhelming majority of the homeless. In the 1980s there was a sharp rise in the number of homeless families in certain parts of the United States; notably New York City. Most homeless families consist of an unmarried mother and children. A significant number of homeless people are teenagers and young adults, mostly runaways or street children. A 1960 survey by Temple University of Philadelphia's poor neighborhoods found that 75% of the homeless were over 45 years old, and 87% were white. In 1986, 86% were under age 45, and 87% were minorities.

[edit] Situations in specific U.S. cities

The Los Angeles region is thought to have the largest concentration of homeless persons in the country. In its biannual census of 2005, the County counted nearly 90,000 homeless persons living in the county at any given night. A quarter of a million are expected to be homeless at any time of the year. A 50-block area in downtown Los Angeles called Skid Row has a homeless population as large as the homeless population of San Francisco. Hollywood and the city of Santa Monica also suffer from visible homelessness. To combat homelessness, public and private service providers launched a new initiative called Bring LA Home, a program that would build 50,000 housing units for homeless persons and end homelessness within 10 years.

The city of San Francisco, California, due to its mild climate and its social programs that have provided cash payments for homeless individuals, is often considered the homelessness capital of the United States. The city's homeless population has been estimated at 7,000-10,000 people. It is believed that New York, which is 10 times as large in population, has only 5 times as many homeless individuals ^{[citation needed]}. On May 3, 2004 [14], San Francisco officially began an attempt to scale back the scope of its homelessness problem by changing its strategy from cash payments to the so-called "Care Not Cash" plan. At the same time, grassroots organizations within the Bay Area such as the Suitcase Clinic work to provide referrals for housing and employment to the homeless population.

The city of Chicago, Illinois is also noted for its number of homeless people. Over the years, Chicago has gained a reputation as the city with the most homeless people, rivaling Los Angeles and New York, although no statistical data has backed this up. The reputation stems primarily from the subjective number of beggars found on the streets rather than any sort of objective statistical census data. Indeed, from statistical data, Chicago has far less homeless per capita than peers New York, and Los Angeles, or other major cities Philadelphia, San Francisco, and Boston, among others.

In Denver, Colorado, Mayor John Hickenlooper has made dealing with the issues that underlie homelessness a top priority on his Mayoral agenda, speaking heavily on the issue during his first "State of the City" address in 2003. While Denver's homeless population is much lower than other major cities, the homeless residents have often suffered when without shelter during Denver's infamously cold winters.[15]

In [16] Indianapolis, Indiana, as many as 2,200 people are homeless on any given night, and as many as 15,000 individuals over the course of a year. Indianapolis is notable among cities of similar size for having only faith-based shelters, such as the century-old [17]Wheeler Mission. In 2001, Mayor Bart Peterson endorsed a 10-year [18]Blueprint to End Homelessness and made it one of his administration's top priorities. The plan's main goals are for more affordable housing units, employment opportunities, and support services. The Blueprint not withstanding, Indianapolis has criminalized aspects of homelessness, such as making panhandling a misdemeanor; and the [19]City-County Council has twice (in April, 2002, and August, 2005) denied the zoning necessary to open a new shelter for homeless women.

[edit] Near-homeless: disabled non-abusers have little safety net

People who are chronically sick and are neither substance abusers nor mentally impaired, must present themselves to shelters, or group living homes. Regular apartments in public senior or disabled housing may have waiting lists as long as four years and rents that equal one-third of a person's income. Millions of disabled persons in the U.S. who receive a check must live with another person or two or risk sleeping in a car. There is no "per diem" program in America to provide temporary housing. They must pay from a disability check or "sleep rough." A disabled person with no close relatives or friends risks dying of exposure if they are unable to find a cot in a shelter. Several advocates have suggested that unused jail cells should be provided free to any citizen, not wanted on an arrest warrant. The key would lock the cell from the inside instead of the outside, of course. "We shelter our criminals but not our unfortunates", or so the advocates are inclined to say.

[edit] American hobo slang

Main article: Hobo

American tramps and hobos of the late nineteenth century and early twentieth century developed a rich and extensive slang. Examples of such terms include:^[57]

• "Barnacle" = a fellow who sticks to one job a year or more
• "Buck" = a Catholic priest good for a dollar
• "Nickel note" = five-dollar bill
• "Stemming" = panhandling or mooching along the streets

[edit] References

[edit] Bibliography

• Baumohl, Jim [20], (editor), "Homelessness in America", Oryx Press, Phoenix, 1996.
• Coalition for the Homeless (New York), "A History of Modern Homelessness in New York City". [21]
• Culhane, Dennis [22], "Responding to Homelessness: Policies and Politics", 2001. [23]
• deMause, Neil, "Out of the Shelter, Into the Fire: New city program for homeless: Keep your job or keep your apartment", The Village Voice, New York, June 20th, 2006. [24]
• DePastino, Todd, "Citizen Hobo: How a Century of Homelessness Shaped America", 2003. ISBN 0-226-14378-3
• Institute for Governmental Studies, Berkeley, "Urban Homelessness & Public Policy Solutions: A One-Day Conference", January 22, 2001[25]
• Kusmer, Kenneth L. [26], "Down and Out, On the Road: The Homeless in American History", Oxford University Press, 2003. ISBN 0-19-504778-8
• Massachusetts Coalition for the Homeless, "Down & Out Resource Manual", 2005. [27]
• Morton, Margaret, "The Tunnel: The Underground Homeless Of New York City", Yale University Press, 1995. ISBN 0-300-06559-0
• Riis, Jacob, "How the Other Half Lives", 1890. [28]
• Rossi, Peter H., "Down and Out in America: The Origins of Homelessness", University Of Chicago Press, 1991.
• Schutt, Russell K., Ph.D., Professor, University of Massachusetts Boston.
  • Schutt, Russell K., et al., "Boston's Homeless, 1986-87: Change and Continuity", 1987.
  • Schutt, Russell K., Working with the Homeless: the Backgrounds, Activities and Beliefs of Shelter Staff, 1988.
  • Schutt, Russell, K., "Homeless Adults in Boston in 1990: A Two-Shelter Profile", 1990.
  • Schutt, Russell K., Garrett, Gerald R., "Responding to the Homeless: Policy and Practice", Topics in Social Psychiatry, 1992. ISBN 0-306-44076-8
  • Schutt, Russell K., Byrne, Francine, et al., "City of Boston Homeless Services: Employment & Training for Homeless Persons", 1995.
  • Schutt, Russell K., Feldman, James, et al., "Homeless Persons’ Residential Preferences and Needs: A Pilot Survey of Persons with Severe Mental Illness in Boston Mental Health and Generic Shelters", 2004.
• Sommer, Heidi, "Homelessness in Urban America: a Review of the Literature", 2001. [29]
• St. Mungo's organisation (UK), "A Brief History of Homelessness". [30]
• Vissing, Yvonne [31], "Out of Sight, Out of Mind: Homeless Children and Families in Small-Town America", 1996.
• Vissing, Yvonne, "The $ubtle War Against Children", Fellowship, March/April 2003. [32]
• Vladeck, Bruce, R., and the Committee on Health Care for Homeless People, Institute of Medicine, "Homelessness, Health, and Human needs", National Academies Press, 1988. [33]
• Toth, Jennifer, "The Mole People: Life in the Tunnels Beneath New York City", 1993. ISBN 1-55652-190-1
• United States Conference of Mayors, "Hunger and Homelessness Survery", December 2005. [34] [35]

[edit] See also

• Poverty in the United States
• Homelessness
• California Proposition (2004)
• Mole People
• Dignity Village
• Frontline Foundation

[edit] External links

• Resources for People on the Street (San Francisco Bay Area) 2006
• City Mayors Society - "Report accuses US cities of criminalising the homeless"
• City Mayors Society - "Big US cities report steep rise in hunger and homelessness"
• National Coalition for the Homeless
• National Alliance to End Homelessness
• Corporation for Supportive Housing
• National Coalition for Homeless Veterans
• Fotolog of the homeless in New York City and Wilkes-Barre, PA
• Blog on homelessness in Los Angeles
• To The Streets National Sleep Out
• Universal Living Wage
• National Low Income Housing Coalition
• Economic Policy Institute
• Urban Institute
• Interagency Council on Homeless - US Government
• City of Boston Homeless census reports
• Coalition for the Homeless (New York)
• Bowery Rescue Mission, New York City
• St. Francis House, Boston, Massachusetts [36]
• United States Conference of Mayors: Human Services
• United States Department of Housing and Urban Development site on Homelessness
• United States Department of Health and Human Services site on Homelessness
• Friends of Boston's Homeless
• The Doe Fund (Ready, Willing, and Able), New York City
• History of Homeless Services - Boston Public Health Commission
• Pine Street Inn, Boston
• National Housing Institute - resources, information, and publisher of "Shelterforce", The Journal of Affordable Housing and Community Building.
• National Center on Family Homelessness
• "Homelessness in the City of Boston Winter 2003-2004" - Annual Census and Mayor's Report, Boston, Thomas M. Menino, Mayor
• State Auditor's Report on Public Housing in Massachusetts, 2006