Governor General of Canada
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The Governor General of Canada (French: Gouverneure générale du Canada or Gouverneur général du Canada) is the vice-regal representative in Canada of the Canadian Monarch, who is Canada's Head of State; Canada is one of sixteen Commonwealth realms, all of which share a single monarch (currently, Queen Elizabeth II). The 1904 Militia Act granted the Governor General the position of Commander-in-Chief of the Canadian military in the name of the Sovereign.[1]
The Monarch appoints the governor general on the advice of the Prime Minister of Canada. There is no specific term, but by convention the governor general usually serves for approximately five years. In each Canadian province, a Lieutenant-Governor, appointed by the governor general, serves as the viceroy.
Any constitutional amendment that affects the office of Governor General requires the unanimous consent of the provincial legislatures as well as the federal parliament, rather than the two-thirds majority necessary for most other amendments.
The Governor General of Canada is Michaëlle Jean, who has served since 27 September 2005. She was appointed on the advice of former Liberal Prime Minister Paul Martin to replace Adrienne Clarkson. Jean is Canada's third female, second non-Caucasian, and first black governor general. The Vice Regal Consort is Jean's husband Jean-Daniel Lafond.
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[edit] History
French colonization of North America began in 1580s, but the vast colony of New France (composed of Canada, Louisiana, and Acadia) grew only during the early and middle seventeenth century. The explorer Samuel de Champlain became the first unofficial Governor of New France in about 1613; however, in 1636, Charles Huault de Montmagny became the first individual formally appointed to the post. Originally, New France was administered by the French Company of One Hundred Associates; in 1663, however, King Louis XIV took over the control of the colony. After 1663, the head of the French administration in New France was known as the Governor General; the first to hold this position was Augustin de Saffray de Mésy.
France lost most of its North American territories, including Canada, to Great Britain during the course of the Seven Years' War (1756–1763), as confirmed by the Treaty of Paris. The Royal Proclamation of 1763 renamed Canada as the "Province of Quebec"; the office of Governor of Quebec was also established. Lieutenant-General Sir Jeffrey Amherst governed the province during the last years of the Seven Years' War, but the first civilian to hold the position was James Murray (appointed 1764). The provinces of Nova Scotia and New Brunswick remained separate, with their own colonial Governors. In the 1780s, the British Government of Prime Minister William Pitt accepted the idea that the provinces of Quebec, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick should share a single Governor-in-Chief (afterwards termed the Governor General). The first individual to occupy this office was Lord Dorchester (appointed 1786). However, the Governor-in-Chief or Governor General only directly governed the Province of Lower Canada; Upper Canada, New Brunswick, and Nova Scotia were instead headed by their own Lieutenant-Governors. In 1840, Upper and Lower Canada were united into the Province of Canada, which remained under the Governor General's authority.
The role of the Governor General changed greatly after the Rebellions of 1837. Soon after the rebellions, the British Government agreed to grant the Canadian provinces responsible government. As a result, the Governor General and Lieutenant-Governors became largely nominal heads, while authority was really held by democratically elected legislatures and by provincial premiers. This arrangement continued after the establishment of the Dominion of Canada in 1867; the Governor General and Lieutenant-Governors remained symbolic representatives of the Crown and of the British Government, while actual political power was vested in the Prime Minister of Canada and in the premiers, at the federal and provincial levels respectively.
The position of Governor General experienced great change during the late 1920s and early 1930s, in the aftermath of the King-Byng Affair. In 1926, the Liberal Prime Minister William Lyon Mackenzie King requested Governor General Lord Byng of Vimy to dissolve Parliament; the Governor General, however, used his reserve power to refuse the request, citing the general election that had been held only months earlier. Accordingly, King resigned, and Lord Byng appointed Arthur Meighen to replace him. Within a week, however, Meighen's Conservative government lost a no-confidence vote in the House of Commons, forcing the Governor General to dissolve Parliament and call elections. After Mackenzie King returned to power with a clear parliamentary majority, he sought to redefine the role of the Governor General.
At an Imperial Conference held later in 1926, the United Kingdom, Canada, and other Dominions all accepted the Balfour Declaration. The Declaration acknowledged that the Dominions were equal in status to the United Kingdom, and that each Governor General would henceforth function solely as a representative of the Crown in their respective Dominions, and not as an agent of the British Government. Instead, the latter function would be taken over by High Commissioners (who are akin to ambassadors). The principle of the equality of the Dominions was further extended by the Statute of Westminster 1931. The concept that the entire Empire was the territory that belonged to the British Crown was abandoned; instead, it was held that each Dominion was a kingdom in its own right, so that the monarch was separately King of the United Kingdom, King of Canada, King of Australia, and so forth. Even though the Dominion of Canada was recognized as independent of and equal to the United Kingdom, it remained customary for Governors General to be British, and not Canadian. The term "Dominion" is no longer used either, as it hearkens back to the British Government having some kind of authority over Canada, which it does not. The first Canadian Governor General, Vincent Massey, was not appointed until 1952.
Credit: Dupras & Colas / Library and Archives Canada / C-001013
Thereafter, the next period of important change for the office came during the tenure of Roland Michener (1967–1974). Michener relaxed the protocols and formalities surrounding the office; for instance, the long-standing custom of bowing or curtsying before the Governor General was abandoned. Michener did retain the traditional military uniform associated with the office, but he was the last Governor General to do so. In 1971, Michener visited Trinidad and Tobago, thereby becoming the first Governor General to make a state visit to another country. This visit was initially the source of some controversy, as many commented that the monarch, not the Governor General, was technically Canada's head of state. Nevertheless, the controversy did not last long; it is now quite common for the Governor General to make state visits.
The office of Governor General has occasionally been a controversial subject in Canada. The group Citizens for a Canadian Republic advocate codifying the office in preparation for what the group sees as the eventual transformation into a presidency similar to the parliamentary republics of Ireland or India, thus completely replacing the Monarchy. On the other hand, organizations such as the Monarchist League of Canada support the retention of the Governor General as the representative of the reigning monarch. Since the failure of the Meech Lake Accord in 1987 and the Charlottetown Accord in 1992, Canadian politicians have shown little appetite for opening discussions on constitutional matters, especially on a polarizing topic such as the Monarchy. There has been little public debate on the abolition of the Monarchy, especially because many Canadians find the conflict over Quebec sovereignty more pressing. Hence, the republican movement in Canada is not as strong as similar movements in some other Commonwealth Realms such as Australia.
[edit] Appointment
The Monarch appoints the Governor General on the advice of the Prime Minister of Canada. From 1867 to 1952, every Governor General was British-born, and a member of the aristocracy. The last British Governor General was Harold Alexander, 1st Viscount Alexander of Tunis, who served from 1946 to 1952. Since Vincent Massey's appointment in 1952, the position has been held only by Canadians. Moreover, by tradition, the post has been held alternately by English-Canadians and French-Canadians. Beginning in 1967, the Prime Minister has forwarded the Queen a single name when proposing a vice-regal appointment; previously a list of several names had been given to the Queen. In general, the Sovereign is bound by constitutional convention to almost always follow the advice of her Prime Minister, as long as the Prime Minister maintains the confidence of the House of Commons and acts within constitutional limits, though she retains the right to encourage, advise, and warn.
Although non-partisan while in office, Governors General are often former politicians. Since 1952, individuals who previously served as diplomats, as cabinet members, or as Speakers of the House of Commons have been appointed to the post. The former Governor General, Adrienne Clarkson, was previously an author and television anchor; she was the first Governor General in Canadian history without either a political or military background. She was also the first Asian-Canadian and the second woman to serve in the position. The first female Governor General of Canada was Jeanne Sauvé, who served from 1984 to 1990.
The third woman to hold this position is Michaëlle Jean, who took office on September 27, 2005. Jean is also the first Black Canadian Governor General.
It is traditional that an appointed individual act as the Queen's representative for a minimum of five years, but in truth the vice-regal serves at Her Majesty's pleasure, and the Canadian Prime Minister may advise the Queen to extend the Vice-Regal's tenure. For instance, Adrienne Clarkson's would have been in office for five years as of 2004, but her appointment as Governor General was extended by the Queen on the advice of Prime Minister Paul Martin, who deemed that it was preferable to have an experienced Governor General in place while a minority government remained in power. The tenures of other Governors General, including Georges Vanier and Roland Michener, have been extended beyond five years in previous circumstances. Governors General may resign from office, as, for instance, Roméo LeBlanc did in 1999 due to health concerns.
If the Governor General dies or leaves the country for more than one month, the Chief Justice of Canada (or, if that position is vacant, the senior Puisne Justice of the Supreme Court of Canada) serves as Administrator of the Government of Canada, and exercises all powers of the Governor General. The only individuals to serve as Administrators due to the deaths of Governors General were Chief Justice Sir Lyman Poore Duff (1940) and Chief Justice Robert Taschereau (1967).
[edit] Governmental role
The Governor General is the representative of the Canadian Monarch, and may exercise most powers vested in the Crown. The Queen does retain all executive power and her Royal Prerogative, but she very rarely personally intervenes in Canadian politics; most of her duties being exercised by the Governor General, though she does alone hold the power to appoint a Governor General, and, as required by the Canadian constitution, to add seats to the Senate, but does so only on the advice of the Canadian Prime Minister.
Although the person who is Monarch of Canada is also Monarch of the United Kingdom, Canada being a sovereign nation, the British Government cannot advise the Governor General, or otherwise interfere in Canadian affairs.
- Further information:Monarchy in Canada: International vs. domestic role
Although the Governor General's powers are in theory extensive, they are in practice very limited. The Governor General is a symbolic and nominal chief executive, acting within the constraints of constitutional convention and precedent. In practice, most political power is exercised by the Parliament of Canada (which is composed of the Crown, the Senate, and the House of Commons), and by the Prime Minister and Cabinet. Thus, almost always, the Governor General exercises the Royal Prerogative on the advice of the Prime Minister and other ministers who are, in turn, accountable to the democratically elected House of Commons, and through it, to the people. Still, part of the Royal Prerogative, known as the reserve powers, however, remain as the Crown's final check against a government's power; as Senator and constitutional expert Eugene Forsey stated: "A Governor General must take all steps necessary to thwart the will of a ruthless prime minister." This power was used by Governor General Lord Byng against Prime Minister William Lyon Mackenzie King in what is known as the King-Byng Affair of 1926. Some, such as the CBC's Larry Zolf, also speculated whether Governor General Adrienne Clarkson would refuse a recommendation from Prime Minister Jean Chrétien to dissolve Parliament in 2002. [1]
All laws are enacted in the Monarch's name. Before a bill can become law, Royal Assent (the Monarch's approval) is required. The Governor General acts on the Monarch's behalf; in theory, he or she has three options: he or she may grant Royal Assent (making the bill law), withhold Royal Assent (vetoing the bill), or reserve the bill for the Signification of the Queen's Pleasure (allowing the Sovereign to personally grant or withhold Assent). If the Governor General does grant Royal Assent, the Sovereign may, within two years, "disallow" the bill, thereby annulling the law in question. No modern Governor General has disallowed a bill, however provincial Lieutenant-Governors have.
The Governor General summons, prorogues, and dissolves Parliament. Each parliamentary session begins with the Governor General's summons. The new parliamentary session is marked by the opening of Parliament, during which the Governor General reads the Speech from the Throne in the Chamber of the Senate, outlining the Government's legislative agenda. Prorogation usually occurs about one year after a session begins, and formally concludes the session. Dissolution, the timing of which is affected by a variety of factors, ends a parliamentary term (which lasts a maximum of five years), and is followed by general elections for all seats in the House of Commons. The Governor General may theoretically refuse a dissolution, but the circumstances under which such an action would be warranted are unclear. It might be justified if a minority government had served only briefly and another party seemed likely to have better success in holding the confidence of the House. The last case of a Governor General rejecting the Prime Minister's advice to dissolve Parliament came during the above-mentioned King-Byng affair.
Whenever necessary, the Governor General is responsible for appointing a new Prime Minister. In accordance with unwritten constitutional conventions, the Governor General must appoint the individual most likely to maintain the support of the House of Commons: usually, the leader of the party which has a majority in that House. If no party has a majority, two or more groups may form a coalition, whose agreed leader is then appointed Prime Minister. Such coalition governments are very rare in Canada. In a Parliament in which no party or coalition holds a majority, the Governor General is required by convention to appoint the individual most likely to command the support of the House of Commons, usually, but not necessarily, the leader of the largest party. Thus, for example, Paul Martin remained Prime Minister for over a year after the 2004 election, even though his party did not command a majority in the Commons. Situations can arise in which the Governor General's judgement about the most suitable leader to be Prime Minister has to be brought into play.
The Governor General also has the power to appoint federal ministers, Senators, judges, and other officials. Effectively, however, the appointees are chosen by the Prime Minister or other ministers. Furthermore, the Governor General is responsible for appointing, in the Queen's name, the Lieutenant-Governors of the provinces. Once again, the Prime Minister chooses the appointees, although the premiers of the provinces concerned also play an advisory role. A Lieutenant-Governor may, instead of granting the Royal Assent to a bill, reserve the bill for the Governor General. This practice, however, has fallen into disuse, having last been invoked by the Lieutenant-Governor of Saskatchewan in 1961. The Commissioners of the Canadian territories are not appointed by the Governor General; nor do they act as representatives of the Crown.
- See also:Monarchy in Canada:Duties
[edit] Ceremonial role
The Governor General's functions are primarily ceremonial. As representative of the Sovereign, the Governor General performs some of the functions normally associated with heads of state. He or she makes state visits abroad, hosts foreign heads of state, receives ambassadors and high commissioners, meets ceremonial groups, and awards medals, decorations, and prizes (including the Governor General's Literary Awards). It has become a tradition for every outgoing Governor General to establish a trophy or award, usually in sport, to be named after him or her.
- Further information: List of Awards Named After Governors General of Canada
He or she serves the symbolic role as the Commander-in-Chief of Canadian Forces. Symbolically the Governor General fills this position, in the name of the Queen, as the allegiance of Armed Forces members is to the Canadian Crown, and not to the sitting, and transient, government. In practice, it is not clear whether the commanders of the Armed Forces could, in reality, turn to the Governor General if they thought that the orders they were receiving from the Prime Minister and Minister of National Defence were illegal or unethical, or whether the Governor General would be justified in issuing new orders directly.
The Governor General is also the Colonel of the Regiment of Canada's three Household Regiments: the Governor General's Horse Guards, Governor General's Foot Guards and Canadian Grenadier Guards. This ceremonial position is directly under the position of Colonel-in-Chief, which is held by the Queen.
Formerly, Letters of Credence and Recall (presented by incoming High Commissioners and Ambassadors to Canada) were addressed to the Queen; since the beginning of 2005, however, they have been addressed to the Governor General, without reference to the Monarch. This decision has caused some controversy, drawing the ire of several monarchists.[2]
[edit] Precedence and privileges
In the order of precedence, the Governor General outranks all individuals except the Monarch; as direct representative of the Sovereign, the Governor General even outranks other members of the Royal Family.
While in office the Governor General, as well as his or her spouse (the Viceregal Consort), is styled "His Excellency" or "Her Excellency." Moreover, Governors General are appointed to the Queen's Privy Council for Canada upon retirement (unless they are already members), and are entitled to the style "The Right Honourable" for life; however, the term "Excellency" is dropped once they vacate the position. The Governor General is the only Canadian entitled to use the term "Excellency" while in Canada; however, visiting Heads of State are termed "Excellency" while in Canada. During his or her term in office, the Governor General is also the Chancellor and Principal Companion of the Order of Canada, the Chancellor of the Order of Military Merit, and the Chancellor of the Order of Merit of the Police Forces and Bailiff/Dame Grand Cross of the Order and Prior and Chief Officer in Canada of St John of Jerusalem. Hence, the Governor General is entitled to wear the badges or insignia of these orders along with any other decorations. At his or her installation ceremony, the Governor General is presented with the collars of the Order of Canada, the Order of Military Merit, the Order of Merit of the Police Forces, and the Canadian Heraldic Authority.
The Governor General's flag is a blue flag bearing a crowned lion holding a red maple leaf in its paw; the design was adopted in 1981. The flag takes precedence over all other flags, save only the Queen's Personal Canadian Flag. The flag may be flown from a vehicle in which the Governor General is travelling, or from a building in which the Governor General is present or is residing. On state visits abroad, however, the Governor General typically uses the national flag, which is a more recognizable Canadian symbol.
The Vice-Regal Salute is the anthem used to greet the Governor General. The Salute comprises the first six bars of the Canadian Royal Anthem (God Save the Queen), and the first four and last four bars of the Canadian National Anthem (O Canada). On state visits abroad, O Canada alone is used to salute the Governor General.
The Governor General receives an annual salary of $110,126, and under the Constitution Act, payment of that salary is the first claim on the revenue of the federal government. His or her official residence is Rideau Hall in Ottawa, Ontario. A Governor General's wife is known as the Chatelaine of Rideau Hall; however, no equivalent exists for husbands of Governors General. Since 1872, Governors General have also resided in the Citadel (La Citadelle) in Quebec City, Quebec for a part of each year (normally several weeks).
The Governor General and his staff also had a suite of offices on Parliament Hill in the East Block until well into World War II.[3] The offices were subsequently incorporated into the Prime Minister's Office (PMO), but have been restored to their 19th century appearance after the PMO moved to the Langevin Block in the 1970s, and are now preserved as a tourist attraction along with other historic offices in the East Block.[4]
The Governor General's staff is headed by the Secretary to the Governor General, working out of Rideau Hall, although it is referred to as Government House when speaking of its business use.[5]
[edit] Activities post-commission
Retired Governors General usually withdraw from public life or accept diplomatic postings. Ed Schreyer, who held the position from 1979 to 1984, became High Commissioner to Australia upon his retirement. In 2005, he became the first former Governor General to run for elected office in Canada when he ran for a seat in the Canadian House of Commons as a candidate for the New Democratic Party in the riding of Selkirk—Interlake. Schreyer lost the election to Conservative James Bezan.
There are several examples from the era of British Governors General of Canada where former viceroys returned to a political career in Britain by sitting with party affiliations in the House of Lords and, in some cases, taking positions in the British cabinet. In 1952, Lord Alexander of Tunis resigned as Governor General of Canada to accept an appointment as Sir Winston Churchill's Minister of Defence. Lord Lansdowne and the Duke of Devonshire both served in British cabinets following their vice-regal careers. Lansdowne also went on to serve as leader of the Conservative Party in the House of Lords for over a decade.
[edit] Books by former Governors General of Canada
Only three former Canadian Governors General have left a written testament about their lives in the form of an autobiography. John Buchan was the first to leave an autobiography, Memory Hold-the-Door which was written during his time in Rideau Hall and published in 1940. Vincent Massey was the second to write an autobiography and the only one who has written two volumes. The first volume, On Being Canadian, was published in 1948 and the second What's Past is Prologue: the Memoirs of the Right Honourable Vincent Massey, C.H., in 1963. Shortly after leaving Rideau Hall Adrienne Clarkson signed a two book deal with Penguin Canada, the first of which was an autobiography titled Heart Matters.
[edit] Spelling
According to the Canadian government, the title Governor General is not hyphenated, even though a hyphen is used in other Commonwealth realms. Many other media organizations in Canada ignore this rule, however, and use the more conventional "governor-general" spelling. As governor is the main noun in the title, it is the term that is pluralized. Moreover, both terms are often capitalized, particularly when preceding an incumbent's name, but sometimes they are not (e.g., Canadian governors general).
[edit] See also
- Monarchy in Canada
- List of Governors General of Canada
- Governor General's Award
- List of Awards presented by the Governor General of Canada
- Flag of the Governor General of Canada
- Queen of Canada
[edit] External links
[edit] References
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Governors General of Canada |  |
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|---|---|---|---|
| Monck | Lisgar | Dufferin | Lorne | Lansdowne | Stanley | Aberdeen | Minto | Grey | Connaught | Devonshire | Byng | Willingdon | Bessborough | Tweedsmuir | Athlone | Alexander | Massey | Vanier | Michener | Léger | Schreyer | Sauvé | Hnatyshyn | LeBlanc | Clarkson | Jean | |||
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| Current: Antigua and Barbuda | Australia | The Bahamas | Barbados | Belize | Canada | Grenada | Jamaica | New Zealand | Papua New Guinea | Saint Kitts and Nevis | Saint Lucia | Saint Vincent and the Grenadines | Solomon Islands | Tuvalu | |||||||||
| Former: Ceylon (now Sri Lanka) | Fiji | The Gambia | Ghana | Guyana | India | Irish Free State (now Republic of Ireland) | Kenya | Malawi | Malta | Mauritius | Nigeria | Pakistan | Sierra Leone | South Africa | Tanganyika (now Tanzania) | Trinidad and Tobago | Uganda | |||||||||
| Former colonies: Rhodesia and Nyasaland | West Indies | |||||||||
| The Canadian Heraldic Authority |  |
|---|---|
| Canadian Heraldic Authority | Governor General | |
| Herald Chancellor | Chief Herald | Deputy Chief Herald | |
| Heralds in Ordinary: Assiniboine Herald | Athabaska Herald | Coppermine Herald | |
| Fraser Herald | Miramichi Herald | Saguenay Herald | Saint-Laurent Herald | |
| Extraordinary and Emeritus Officers: Capilano | Cowichan | Dauphin | Niagara | Red Hill | Rouge | Outaouais |
| Preceded by: Governor General of the Province of Canada or Governor in Chief of the Province of Canada 1763–1867 |
Governor General of Canada 1867–present |
Succeeded by: current title |
