Gojoseon
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
| Gojoseon | |
|---|---|
| Hangul: |
고조선
|
| Hanja: |
古朝鮮
|
| Revised Romanization: | Gojoseon |
| McCune-Reischauer: | Kojosŏn |
Gojoseon was an ancient Korean kingdom. Go-, which distinguishes it from the later Joseon Dynasty, is sometimes translated as "Old" or "Ancient". Joseon is also romanized as Chosŏn. See also: Names of Korea.
According to Samguk Yusa and Chronicle of Korean Rulers(제왕연대력)[1], Gojoseon was founded in 2333 BC by the probably legendary Dangun in the basins of the Liao and Taedong Rivers, ruling over northern Korean peninsula and southern Manchuria, and maintained 1,048 years (Senyeon-ga, Sejong Shilok) or about 1,908 years (Samguk Yusa). Unsubstantiated recent research says that Gojoseon had become an ancient nation at 2333BCE[2], and some historians suggested that Gojoseon was founded around 3000BCE[3]
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[edit] People
The people of Gojoseon likely belonged to the Tungusic family and were linguistically affiliated with the Altaic. They propagated in Manchuria, far eastern China, north of the Yangtze River, and the Korean Peninsula. Gojoseon eventually consolidated in lower Manchuria and the Korean Peninsula. The people of Gojeoson were recorded as Dongyi (東夷) in Chinese, meaning ""eastern barbarians". The expression is also interpreted as "eastern bowmen", because 夷 consists of "弓" (bow) and "人" (man).
[edit] Location
There are three theories about the location of Gojoseon. The first is that Gojoseon was located in Manchuria, Liaoning and the Korean peninsula. The second is that Gojoseon was initially located in Liaoning, then moved to Pyongyang around 4 BC. The third theory says that it was located in Pyongyang.[4][5] For more details will be discussed in the section of "Theories of Gojoseon's Territory"
[edit] Founding legend and state formation
Dangun Wanggeom is the legendary founder of Korea. The oldest existing record of this founding myth appears in the Samguk Yusa, a 13th-century collection of legends and stories. A similar account is found in Jewang Ungi.
The Lord of Heaven Hwanin (환인; 桓因, a name which also appears in Indian Buddhist texts), had a son Hwanung who yearned to live on the earth among the people. Hwanin relented, and Hwanung descended to Mount Taebaek with 3,000 helpers, where he founded a city he named Sinsi (신시; 神市, "City of God" or "Holy City"). Along with his ministers of clouds, rain, and wind, he instituted laws and moral codes and taught the people various arts, medicine, and agriculture.
A tiger and a bear living in a cave prayed to Hwanung that they may become human. Upon hearing their prayers, Hwanung gave them 20 cloves of garlic and a bundle of mugwort, instructing them to eat only this sacred food and remain out of the sunlight for 100 days. The tiger shortly gave up and left the cave, but the bear remained and after 21 days was transformed into a woman.
The bear-woman (Ungnyeo, 웅녀, 熊女) was very grateful and made offerings to Hwanung. She lacked a husband, however, and soon became sad and prayed beneath a Shindansu (신단수; 神檀樹, "Divine Betula") tree to be blessed with a child. Hwanung, moved by her prayers, took her for his wife and soon she gave birth to a son, Dangun Wanggeom (단군 왕검; 檀君王儉).
Gojoseon is said to have been established in 2333 BC, based on the description of the Dongguk Tonggam (1485). The date differs among historical sources, although all of them put it during the mythical Yao's reign (traditional dates: 2357 BC-2256 BC). Samguk Yusa says Dangun ascended to the throne in the 50th year of the legendary Yao's reign, Sejong Sillok says the first year, and Dongguk Tonggam says the 25th year.
Gojoseon is first found in contemporaneous historical records of early 7th century BC, as located around Bohai Bay and trading with Qi (齊) of China. At this point, it was identified as a distinct polity, but there is little archaeological evidence of a fully functioning state.[6]
Some historians argue that "Dangun" may have been the title of Gojoseon's early leaders. The legitimacy and authority of the "Dangun Wanggeom" seem to have been dependent on, or glorified by the divine lineage that linked them to Hwanin, which suggests the religious character of this type of leadership, which is thought to have existed when Gojoseon was a fortified city-state (not unlike those of Ancient Greece), most likely located in the Taedong river basin at Pyongyang.
By the 4th century BC, other states with defined political structures arose developed in the areas of the earlier bronze age sometimes called "walled-town states". Gojoseon was the most advanced of them in the peninsular region.[7] The leaders of the city-state expanded the influence and power of the city-state by incorporating other neighboring city-states either by alliance, or by military conquest. Thus, a vast confederation of various political entities between the Taedong and Liao rivers was formed. As the frontiers and the very nature of the Gojoseon civilization evolved, so did the title and function of the leader, who came to be designated as "king" (王 Wáng), in the tradition of the Zhou Dynasty, around the same time as the Yan (燕) leader.[8] Records of that time mention the hostility between the feudal state in Northern China and the "confederated" kingdom of Gojoseon, and notably, a plan to attack the Yan/Yen beyond the Liao River frontier. The confrontation will lead to the decline and eventual downfall of Gojoseon, described in Yan records as "arrogant" and cruel". But the ancient kingdom also (and perhaps first and foremost) appears as a prosperous bronze culture civilization, with a complex social structure, including a "class" of horse-riding warriors who certainly contributed to the development of Ancient Joseon and particularly the northern expansion[9], which annexed most of the Liaotung basin. The controversial 3rd century BC Chinese records of Jizi refer to laws (Beomgeum Paljo, 범금팔조, 犯禁八條) that evidence a hierarchical society and legal protection of private property.[10]
Around 300 BC, Gojoseon lost significant western territory after a war with the Yan state, but this indicates Gojoseon was already a large enough state that could wage war against Yan and survive the loss of 2000 li (which is equal to 800 kilometers in the direct from east to west) of territory.[11] Gojoseon is thought to have relocated its capital to the Pyongyang region around this time.[12]
[edit] Gija controversy
Gija Joseon is the alleged kingdom that followed Gojoseon, founded by Chinese descendants led by Gija. Whether Gija Joseon actually existed is a matter of controversy and debate. Korean scholars deny its existence because of a dearth of evidence to support the theory. [13] These scholars point to the book entitled Chu-shu chi-nien (竹書紀年) and Confucian Analects (論語), which were among the first works to mention Gija, but do not mention his migration to Gojoseon.[14]. Detractors of the Gija Joseon theory also point to the cultural artifacts found in the region do not appear to have Chinese origins. An example of such an artifact is found in a Gojoseon mandolin-shaped bronze dagger. Its shape and bronze composition are different from similar artifacts found in China.
According to the school of historians who believe that Gija Joseon coexisted with Gojoseon of Dangun, Gija Joseon was established at the only west of Gojoseon, which is currently around Hebei, Liaoning and southern east of inner Mongolia, and was later overthrown by Wiman. Thus Wudi's conquest against Wiman Joseon was in western part of Gojoseon formerly ruled by Gija and his descendants, which corresponds to Beonjoseon.
- See also: Wiman Joseon
[edit] Decline of Gojoseon
The course of the decline and Gojoseon's fall is under controversy, depending on how historians view the migration of Gija Joseon.
The first opinion is that Gojoseon was disintegrated by 1st century BC as it gradually lost the control of its former fiefs. As Gojoseon lost the control to their confederacies, many smaller states sprang from the former territory of Gojoseon such as Buyeo, Okjeo, Dongye, Guda-guk, Galsa-guk, Gaema-guk, Hangin-guk, etc. The origin of Goguryeo and Baekje is Buyeo.
Some historian says that the disintegration of Gojoseon is caused by the destruction of Beonjoseon, which is one of three confederacies of Gojoseon. They say that Beonjoseon's King Jun appointed one of three refugees from China, Wiman. Wiman later rebelled in 194 BC, and Jun fled to Jinjoseon. Wiman Joseon was influenced by the Chinese, but was not a Chinese fiefdom. In 109 BC, Wudi of China invaded Beonjoseon near the Liao River. Gojoseon fell after over a year of war in 108 BC. it is thought that China established four commanderiesin western part of Gojoseon, although it is doubtful that the Chinese commanderies existed or not.
[edit] Culture
Around 2000 BC, a new pottery culture of painted and chiseled design is found. These people practiced agriculture in a settled communal life, probably organized into familial clans. Rectangular huts and increasingly larger dolmen burial sites are found throughout the peninsula. Bronze daggers and mirrors have been excavated, and there is archaeological evidence of small walled-town states in this period.[15][16]
[edit] Mumun pottery
In the Mumun Pottery Period (1500 - 300 BC), plain coarse pottery replaced earlier comb-pattern wares, possibly as a result of the influence of new populations migrating to Korea from Manchuria and Siberia. This type of pottery typically has thicker walls and displays a wider variety of shapes, indicating improvements in kiln technology.[17] This period is sometimes called the Korean bronze age, but bronze artifacts are relatively rare and regionalized until the 7th century BC.
[edit] Rice cultivation
Sometime around 1200 to 900 BC, rice cultivation was introduced to Korea, most likely from China by way of Manchuria. The people also farmed native grains such as millet and barley, and domesticated livestock.[18]
[edit] Bronze tools
The beginning of the Bronze Age on the peninsula is usually said to be 1000 BC, but estimates range from the 15th to 8th centuries BC. Although the Korean bronze age culture derives from the Liaoning and Manchuria, it exhibits unique typology and styles, especially in ritual objects. [19]
By the 7th century BC, a Bronze Age material culture, with influences from northeastern China as well as Siberia and Scythian bronze styles, flourishes on the peninsula. Korean bronzes contain a higher percentage of zinc than those of the neighboring bronze cultures. Bronze artifacts, found most frequently in burial sites, consist mainly of swords, spears, daggers, small bells, and mirrors decorated with geometric patterns. [20][21]
Gojoseon's development seems linked to the adoption of bronze technology. Its singularity finds its most notable expression in the idiosyncratic type of bronze swords, or mandolin-shaped daggers (비파형동검, 琵琶形銅劍). The mandolin-shape dagger is found in the regions of Liaoning, Manchuria down to the Korean peninsula. It suggest the existence of Gojoseon dominions, at least in the area shown on the map. Remarkably, the shape of the "mandolin" dagger of Gojoseon differs significantly from the sword artifacts found in China. In addition, the composition of Gojoseon's bronze artifacts contains much more tin than that of China, which emphasizes the differences between Gojoseon's bronze culture and Chinese bronze ware, and the originality of Gojoseon's technological development.
[edit] Dolmen tombs
Around 900 BC, burial practices become more elaborate, a reflection of increasing social stratification. Dolmen tombs, formed of upright stones supporting a horizontal slab, are more numerous in Korea than in other parts of East Asia. Other new forms of burial are stone cists (underground burial chambers lined with stone) and earthenware jar coffins. The bronze objects, pottery, and jade ornaments recovered from dolmens and stone cists indicate that such tombs were reserved for the elite class. [1] [2]
Around the 6th century BC, burnished red wares, made of a fine iron-rich clay and characterized by a smooth, lustrous surface, appear in dolmen tombs, as well as in domestic bowls and cups. [3]
[edit] Iron culture
Around this time, Jin-guk occupied the southern part of the Korean peninsula. Very little is known about this state, except it was the apparent predecessor to the Samhan confederacies.
Around 300 BC, iron technology was introduced into Korea from China. Iron was produced locally in the southern part of the peninsula by the second century BC. According to Chinese accounts, iron from the lower Nakdong River valley in the southeast, was valued throughout the peninsula and Japan. [4]
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[edit] Theories of Gojoseon's Territory
[edit] The First Theory: Manchuria, Liaoning and Korean peninsula
This theory is the most recent research about the Gojoseon's territory[22]. The territory of Gojoseon of this theory is based on the archeological evidence of dress ornaments, Dolmen tombs, bronze tools and mumun pottery. The territory by this theory covers south Manchuria, Liaoning and Korean peninsula. This theory is also supported by the Samjoseon, which is originally suggested by a celebrated scholar and independent fighter Sin Chaeho. According to the first theory of Gojosoen's territory, Gija joseon and Wiman Joseon are only subjugated confederacies of Gojoseon, and they were located in the west part of Gojoseon, which may corresponds to the current Liaoning. Therefore, this theory also says that the Chinese four commanderies were also located in Liaoning because Han dynasty destroyed the Wiman Joseon ,and then construct the commanderies.
[edit] The Second Theory: from Liaodong to Pyoungyang
This theory about Gojoseon's territory says that the main territory was Liaodong, and then the capital city was moved to Pyoungyang after Yan's invasion. By then, about 1000km of Gojoseon's territory became Yan's territory.
[edit] Third Theory: Pyoungyang
This theory is mostly suggested by the historian in North Korean and Japan, and says that Gojoseon's capital city was only Pyoungyang, and had never ruled over Manchuria. However, this theory is generally rejected currently because North Korean seems to suggest this theory for justifying their legitimacy of Gojoseon, and Japan seems to suggest this theory for justifying their colonization of Korea.
[edit] Proto-Three Kingdoms
Numerous small states and confederations arose from the remnants of Gojoseon, including Goguryeo, Buyeo, Okjeo, and Dongye. Three of the Chinese commanderies fell to local resistance within a few decades, but the last, Lelang, remained an important commercial and cultural outpost until it was destroyed by the expanding Goguryeo in 313.
King Jun of Gojoseon is said to have fled to the state of Jin in southern Korean peninsula. Jin developed into the Samhan confederacies, the beginnings of Baekje and Silla, continuing to absorb migration from the north. Goguryeo, Baekje, and Silla gradually grew into the Three Kingdoms of Korea that dominated the entire peninsula by around the 4th century.
[edit] See also
[edit] Notes
- ^ 제왕연대력 帝王年代曆 Jewang yeondaeryeok, Choe Chiwon (최치원) (857 - ?)
- ^ Yoon, N.-H.(윤내현), The Location and Transfer of GO-CHOSUN's Capital(고조선의 도읍 위치와 그 이동), 단군학연구, 7, 207 - 238 (2002)
- ^ 허종호, 고조선력사 개관 (An Introduction to Gojoseon's History), 사회과학원(2001) ISBN 89-89524-04-0
- ^ http://enc.daum.net/dic100/viewContents.do?&m=all&articleID=b01g4157b|Daum article: 고조선[古朝鮮
- ^ http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/ht/04/eak/ht04eak.htm|Metropolitan Museum of Art: Timeline of Art and History, Korea, 1000 BC-1 AD
- ^ http://100.naver.com/100.php?id=14543
- ^ http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/ht/04/eak/ht04eak.htm
- ^ http://100.naver.com/100.php?id=14543
- ^ http://www.nytimes.com/books/first/c/cumings-korea.html?_r=1&oref=slogin
- ^ http://enc.daum.net/dic100/viewContents.do?&m=all&articleID=b01g4157b
- ^ http://enc.daum.net/dic100/viewContents.do?&m=all&articleID=b01g4157b
- ^ http://100.naver.com/100.php?id=14543
- ^ http://www.dbpia.co.kr/view/ar_view.asp?pid=694&isid=30674&arid=657709&topMenu=&topMenu1=
- ^ http://100.naver.com/100.nhn?docid=29466
- ^ http://www.nytimes.com/books/first/c/cumings-korea.html?_r=1&oref=slogin
- ^ http://www.country-data.com/cgi-bin/query/r-9500.html
- ^ http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/ht/04/eak/ht04eak.htm
- ^ http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/ht/03/eak/ht03eak.htm
- ^ http://daegu.museum.go.kr/museum/english/body_02/body02_1_03.htm
- ^ Metropolitan Museum of Art: Timeline of Art and History, Korea, 1000 BC-1 AD
- ^ Metropolitan Museum of Art: Arts of Korea, Bronze Age Objects
- ^ Proving the territory of Gojoseon. Naeyoung Yoon, Seonhee Park and Moonshik Ha. Jishik Saneobsa (2006) In Korean. ISBN 89-423-1089-3
