Germanic neopaganism

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Germanic neopaganism is the modern revival of historical Germanic paganism.

Romanticist reconstructions of the Germanic pagan traditions began in the 19th century Romantic movement. Later in the 1960s, various Neopagan groups emerged, some of which based their beliefs on the pre-Christian Germanic faiths.

The terms Ásatrú ("Æsir faith"), Odinism, Forn Sed ("Old custom", Anglo-Saxon Fyrnsidu), (Germanic) Heathenry[1][2] Theodism and other terms are used as descriptors for those who adhere to the belief system encompassed by the term Germanic neopaganism. Use of terminology varies by region as well as intent, much like religious denominations in other religions.

Attitude and focus of adherents may vary considerably, from strictly historical polytheistic reconstructionism to syncretist (eclectic), pragmatic psychologist, or occult or mysticist approaches.

Contents

[edit] Terminology

Different terms exist for the various types of Germanic neopaganism. Some terms are specific in reference whereas other are blanket terms for a variety of groups.

[edit] Ásatrú

Ásatrú is an Old Norse compound derived from Ása, the plural genitive of Áss, which refers to the Aesir, (one of the two families of gods in Norse mythology, the other being the Vanir), and trú, literally "troth" or "faith". Thus, Ásatrú is the "Æsir's faith." The term is the Old Norse/Icelandic translation of Asetro, a neologism coined in the context of 19th century romantic nationalism, used by Edvard Grieg in his 1870 opera Olaf Trygvason. The Icelandic form of the word is first recorded in 1945 in Heiðinn siður á Íslandi ("Heathen traditions in Iceland") by Ólafur Briem. Ásatrúar, sometimes used as a plural in English, is properly the genitive of Ásatrú.

Use of Ásatrú for Germanic paganism preceding 19th century revivalist movements is an anachronism. Likewise, use of Ásatrú as a synonym of Germanic neopaganism, while widespread in the USA, can be misleading. Organizations self-describing as Ásatrú cover a wide spectrum, including left-wing or alternative New Age, tribalist or reconstructionist, folkish, and neonazi (e.g. Artgemeinschaft) movements.

[edit] Forn Siðr

Old Norse Forn Siðr, Anglo-Saxon Fyrnsidu and its modern Scandinavian analogues Forn Sed, all meaning "Old Custom", is used as a term for pre-Christian Germanic culture in general, and for Germanic neopaganism in particular, mostly by groups in Scandinavia. Old Norse forn "old" is cognate to Sanskrit purana, English far. Old Norse siðr "custom" (not to be confused with sīðr "late"), Anglo-Saxon sidu, seodu "custom", cognate to Greek ethos, in the sense of "traditional law, way of life, proper behaviour". In meaning, the term corresponds exactly to Sanskrit sanātana dharma, the native term for Hinduism. In contradistinction to Ásatrú, inn forni siðr is actually attested in Old Norse, contrasting with inn nýi siðr "the new custom", and similarly Heiðinn siðr, contrasting with Kristinn siðr, and í fornum sið "in old (heathen) times" [4].

[edit] Heathenry

Heathen (Old English hæðen, Old Norse heiðinn) was coined as a translation of Latin paganus, in the Christian sense of "non-Abrahamic faith". In Icelandic Sagas, the terms heiðni and kristni (Heathenry and Christianity) are used to parallel each other, as straightforward descriptions of the older and newer faiths. Historically, the term was influenced by Gothic *haiþi, appearing as haiþno in Ulfilas' bible as translating gunē Hellēnis, "Greek (i.e. gentile) woman" of Mark 7:26, probably with an original meaning "dwelling on the heath", but it was also suggested that it was chosen because of its similarity to Greek ethne "gentile" or even that it is not related to "heath" at all, but rather a loan from Armenian hethanos, itself loaned from Greek ethnos. Some Germanic neopagans[name a specific person/group] narrow the sense of the word to Germanic paganism in particular, and prefer it over pagan as a self-designation.[5]

Especially in the UK it is used for strictly polytheistic reconstructioist (as opposed to syncretic, occult or mysticist) approaches. While some practitioners use the term Heathenry as equivalent to Paganism, others use it much more specifically. It is used by those who are re-creating the old religion and worldview from the literary and archaeological sources, who describe themselves as "Heathen" in part to distinguish themselves from other pagans whose rituals come from other sources. Some North Americans use Heathenism with a similar intent.

[edit] Odinism

The term Odinism was coined by Orestes Brownson in 1848, in his book A revival of Odinism, or the old Scandinavian heathenism. The term was re-introduced in the late 1930s by Alexander Rud Mills in Australia with his First Anglecyn Church of Odin and his book The Call of Our ancient Nordic Religion. In the 1960s and early 1970s, Else Christensen's Odinist Study Group and later with the Odinist Fellowship brought the term into usage in North America. In the UK, the Odinic Rite has specifically identified themselves as "Odinists" since the 1970s, and is the longest running group to do so. Odinists do not necessarily focus on the worship of Odin and most honour the full pantheon.[6]

[edit] Theodism

Theodism, or Þéodisc Geléafa seeks to reconstruct the beliefs and practices of the Anglo-Saxon tribes which settled in England. þéodisc is the adjective of þéod "people, tribe", cognate to deutsch. As it evolved, the Theodish community moved past solely Anglo-Saxon forms and other Germanic tribal groups were also being reconstituted; Theodism, in this larger sense, now encompass groups practicing tribal beliefs from Scandinavia and the Continent, following in the model set forth by the Anglo Saxon theods founded in the 1970s. Theodish aetts include, Norman, Frisian, Angle, Saxon, Jutish, Gothic, Alemannic, Swedish and Danish tribal cultures; in this wider sense, Theodism thus becomes synonymous with other terms generically for Germanic neopaganism, such as Asatru and Forn Sed.[7]

[edit] History

[edit] Romantic

Main article: Germanic mysticism

The first modern attempt at revival of ancient Germanic religion took place in the 19th Century during the late Romantic Period amidst a general resurgence of interest in traditional Germanic culture, in particular in connection with romantic nationalism in Scandinavia and the related Viking revival in Victorian era Britain. The last traditional pagan sacrifices in Scandinavia, at Trollkyrka, appear to date to about this time.

Organized Germanic pagan or occult groups such as the Germanische Glaubens-Gemeinschaft emerged in Germany in the early 20th century. Several early members of the Nazi Party were part of the Thule Society, a study group for German antiquity.

The connections of this movement to historical Germanic paganism are tenuous at best, with emphasis lying on the esoteric as taught by the likes of Julius Evola, Guido von List and Karl Maria Willigut. While it is postulated that occult elements played an important role in the formative phase of Nazism, and of the SS in particular, after his rise to power, Adolf Hitler discouraged such pursuits. Point 24 of the National Socialist Party program, stated that the party endorsed "Positive Christianity." [8]

Some Germanic neopagans and occultists were subjected to persecution by the Nazi state. Friedrich Bernhard Marby spent 99 months in KZ Dachau and Siegfried Adolf Kummer was detained the same time as Marby (in 1935) and was never heard of again.[3] The founder of the original pre-nazi Deutsches Ahnerbe, Herman Wirth was exiled and prohibited from writing or lecturing because his views of traditional Germanic religion were perceived as incompatible with the goals of the state. Another pioneer of the revival, Ludwig Fahrenkrog, founder of the Germanic Glaubens-Gemeinschaft was prohibited from public speaking or holding religious rituals because he refused to end his public lectures and personal correspondences with the obligatory "Heil Hitler". Dr. Ernst Wachler who built the Harzer Bergtheater specifcally for Germanic plays and operas was sent to KZ Auschwitz where he perished.[4]

Several books published by the Nazi party including Die Gestaltung Der Feste Im Jahres - Und Lebenslau In Der SS-Familie (The Celebrations in the Life of the SS Family) by Fritz Weitzel, as well as the SS Tante Friede blatantly portray the fact that the National Socialists thought traditional Germanic Heathenry was primitive superstition which needed reworking to better serve the state. Celebrating the traditional festivals like Jul and Sommersonnenwende were encouraged, but not in the context of traditional seasonal sacrifices to the Pagan Gods, but rather the veneration of the Nazi state and Fuhrer. One of the most frequently cited "Pagan" elements of the Nazi regime - their usage of the Armanen runes - were in fact nothing more than an ahistorical Weimar-era invention of Guido von List with no connection whatsoever to Paganism.[5]

[edit] Second wave

A second revival began in the late 1960s and early 1970s. Ásatrú was recognized as an official religion by the Icelandic government in 1973, largely due to the efforts of Sveinbjörn Beinteinsson.

At about the same time, Else Christensen began publishing "The Odinist" newsletter in Canada. In the United States, Stephen McNallen, a former U.S. Army officer, began publishing a newsletter titled The Runestone. He also formed an organization called the Asatru Free Assembly, later renamed the Ásatrú Folk Assembly (AFA) [9], which held annual "Althing" meetings. These early societies went through a series of reformations and splits in 1987/88, resulting in the Ásatrú Alliance [10], an offshoot of the AFA headed by Valgard Murray, publisher of the "Vor Tru" newsletter. In 1987 the Ring of Troth (now just called the Troth) was founded by former members of the AFA. [11]. In the United States, the most prevalent form of Heathen organization is in small groups called Kindreds, sometimes also known as a Hearths, Garths or Steads.

In 1976 Garman Lord formed the Witan Theod, the first aett within the Theodish community, as an apostasy of Seax Wicca; striving to cleave to a more organic and accurate reconstruction of Anglo-Saxon religiosity. Shortly thereafter, Ealdoraed Lord founded the Moody Hill Theod in the same area of upstate New York, Watertown. Unlike the other major Heathen organization of the time in America, the Asatru Free Assembly, which concentrated on the Viking Age, Theodism was focused on Anglo Saxon lore, beliefs, and all its attendant social structures, particularly the concept of thew (customary law). Theodism was founded strictly to be a reconstructionist “retro-heathen” belief, now known as Theodish Belief, theodisic Geleafa or simply Þéodism. The Angelseaxisce Ealdriht was a confederation promoting Anglo-Saxon Theodish Heathenry from 1996 to 2004, founded by Swain and Eric Wodening and Winifred Hodge. Since the Anglo-Saxon society was based on sacral kingship, American Theodist neopagans saw it necessary to elect an Aetheling; this position, king of Winland Rice has been occupied by one Garman since 1995 [12]. Theodism now encompass groups practicing tribal beliefs from Scandinavia and the Continent, in addition to following in the model set forth by the early Anglo Saxon peoples. Theodism places emphasis on oaths and allegiance between members.

The Odinic Rite was established in England in 1972, and in the 1990s expanded to include chapters in Germany (1995) [13], Australia (1995) [14] and North America (1997) [15]. A Netherlands section was added in 2006[16].

In Germany, Nazism was replaced with Neo-Nazi currents after World War II, with the Artgemeinschaft operating from 1951. A non-political revival began in the wake of the New Age movement, with the Heidnische Gemeinschaft (HG) founded by Géza von Neményi in 1985. Von Neményi in 1991 re-activated the Germanische Glaubens-Gemeinschaft (GGG) and split off the HG.

The movement further diversified during the 1990s: In 1997 the Nornirs Ætt was founded as part of the neopagan network Rabenclan and in 2000 the by-now largest group, the Eldaring, inspired by the US Troth. Hostility between factions remains pronounced in Germany, with even Nornirs Ætt and Rabenclan, two expressedly anti-racist organizations, discontinuing their collaboration in 2005.

In the 1990s and 2000s, a variety of Scandinavian associations and networks have formed. Swedish AsatruSociety (since 1994), Norwegian Åsatrufellesskapet Bifrost in Norway (1996) and Foreningen Forn Sed (1999), recognized by the Norwegian government as a religious society, allowing them to perform "legally binding civil ceremonies" (i. e. marriages), Danish Forn Siðr (1999) and Swedish Nätverket Gimle (2001), an informal community for individual heathens, primarily living in Sweden with no connection to any formal organisation, and Nätverket Forn Sed (2004), a network consisting of local groups (blotlag) from all over the country. It was recently founded by members from other Forn Sed societies. The network is against racism, sexism and homophobia.

[edit] Distribution of adherents

Today, Germanic neopaganism is practiced primarily in Scandinavia, Germany, Britain, North America, Australia and New Zealand. Small communities are also found in many other countries, mostly in Western Europe (Austria, Switzerland, the Netherlands, Belgium, France, Italy, Spain, Portugal), Latin America (Mexico, Brasil) and Russia.

The number of adherents worldwide is unknown, partly because of the lack of a clear definition separating Asatru from related currents. Those organised in some sort of organization number perhaps several hundred in North America, about 700 in Iceland, and a few hundred in both Scandinavia and Germany, with smaller groups scattered world wide, adding to a total of a few thousands.

As of 2001, the City University of New York estimated that some 140,000 people in the USA self-identify as "Pagan" [17] (excluding Wiccan (134,000), New Age (68,000), Druid (33,000), Spiritualist (116,000) and aboriginal religions (4,000)). The total number of neopagans worldwide is estimated at roughly one million [18] [19], of which about a third each are located in the UK, the USA, and over the rest of the world.

Celtic neopaganism is more widespread than Germanic traditions in the UK, so that including individuals not organized in societies, the worldwide number of people identifying in some way with Asatru or Germanic neopaganism may range at roughly a hundred thousand.

[edit] Factions

Besides the Norse/Germanic mythology at its core, Heathenry has regional varieties of emphasis, often from the subjective interpretations of influential local practitioners. In Germany and the USA, some groups such as the Gambanreidi Statement [20] and Wotansvolk [21] have racial, white supremacy or Neo-Nazi ideologies, while in Iceland, on the other hand, Ásatrú has left wing associations.

Some neopagan organizations (Germany in particular) have a relationship to Ariosophy, Occultism and Neo-Nazi ideologies, such as the Armanen-Orden in the tradition of Karl Maria Willigut. Other organizations, like the re-founded Germanische Glaubens-Gemeinschaft or Odinic Rite are not clear in their associations, while the Rabenclan has a reputation of being a fierce anti-Nazi critic. In the USA, early Germanic neopagan groups such as Else Christensen's Odinist Fellowship were influenced by National Socialism, while the three largest Germanic neopagan groups in the USA specifically decry racism and national socialism.</ref> The three largest American Ásatrú organizations have specifically denounced any association with racist groups.[6] There is an antagonistic relationship between many neo-Nazis and the membership of most Ásatrú organizations in the USA, who view "national socialism as an unwanted totalitarian philosophy incompatible with freedom-loving Norse paganism".[7]

Mattias Gardell, reader for religious history at the University of Stockholm, distinguishes "militant racist", "ethnic" and "nonracist" Germanic neopagan groups, in North America in particular. In the militant racist position, Asatru is an expression of the "Aryan racial soul". The ethnic position is that of "tribalism", ethnocentric but opposed to the militant racist position. According to Gardell, the militant racist faction has grown significantly in North America during the early 2000s estimating that as of 2005 it accounts for 40 to 50 percent of North American Odinists or Asatruar with the other two factions at close to 30% each.[8]

Ásatrú also has connections with the black metal subculture, notably Varg Vikernes who was responsible for the burning of several Christian churches in the 1980s and 1990s in Norway, in an attempt to restore Norway to its pagan roots.

In North America, Heathenry differs from Ásatrú in being generally more rooted in the landscape (Blain, 2002a, Harvey 2006 forthcoming) and in this may possibly be more akin to Ásatrú in Iceland and similar religious expression in Scandinavia. Heathenry draws on ideas of a living landscape, close to some expressed by indigenous religions elsewhere. Heathenry, therefore, for many adherents, is about creating a connection between humans and landscape, through the acknowledgement of land- and other wights, ancestors (spiritual and cultural, not necessarily physical) and other beings; it is therefore an animist religion drawing on (for instance) the Old English healing charms, the Icelandic Eddas and Sagas, and folklore elements in creating a religion from today from these and other resources. Shamanic or shamanistic elements are evident and practitioners may use seid and galdr, or shamanistic magic and sung magic, in rituals. Heathenry relates to both the practices and worldviews of Heathens and to the practitioners - thus Heathenry can mean people who are Heathen, or what they do. In general, Heathens consider that people are called to the religion, perhaps by the gods or by the landscape, regardless of their ethnic origins. In this sense, Heathens are new-indigenes (Blain and Wallis, 2002).

[edit] Reconstructionism

Germanic neopaganism as opposed to neopaganism in general is often defined as polytheistic reconstructionism. Not all adherents agree with this - saying that their goal is to create religious practice and personal empowerment for today, rather than to imitate or re-enact past rituals. Basically, such construction or reconstruction works from the principle that earlier documents or artefacts (from literature or archaeology) hold clues to religious or spiritual practice and relationships with deities or spirits, and in particular to world-views or religious philosophies. These practices and worldviews and relationships can be used or adopted meaningfully within today's world, with practitioners concerned to locate practices, deities, etc, within culture and time, and to be able to point to some documentation or other justification for what they do.

[edit] Tenets and worldview

Many of the ritual forms of blót - making an offering - and sumble (or symbel)- a ritual of toasting - are discussed under Asatru. Indeed these forms generally serve to separate Germanic/Nordic religion from other pagan and neo-pagan practices. Heathenry is defined, however, as much by worldview and discourse as by specific rituals. The following list is given by Blain (2006, based on 2002a) for this article, from her ethnographic work with today's Heathens, of understandings or discourses of Heathenry that shape what Heathens do.

For most Heathens, Heathenry is part of daily life. While Heathen ritual practices vary from the construction of elaborate blots or seid-rituals, to a daily communing with wights or deities, it seems to be worldview that most matters. Therefore, Heathens do not necessarily see 'magic' as an important or central constituent of their personal practice: but, as polytheists and, often, animists, the possibility of magic exists, and magical specialists form part of the Heathen community in the UK.

The possibility of manipulation of consciousness or ‘reality’ by the wights or deities, or through magic inspired by them: including galdr or sung spells, runic magic, and seidr or 'shamanistic' magic.

[edit] Polytheism and mythology

The deities of Heathenry are those of Anglo-Saxon religion and of Norse Mythology - see list of Norse gods. Some British Heathens may also honour one or more Brythonic or Gaelic deities of Celtic Mythology. As with other polytheist religions, it is quite common for individuals to owe personal allegiance to a small number of deities while also recognising and honouring many others. In North America there is also Theodism or Þéodisc Geléafa ("tribal belief") which started out as a form of Germanic Neopaganism which sought to reconstruct the beliefs and practices of the Anglo-Saxon tribes which settled in England. þéodisc is the adjective of þéod "people, tribe", cognate to deutsch.

Polytheism is a sense of gods or wights as discrete individuals, each with 'their own agendas'. That is, Heathens do not usually consider that different goddesses are 'aspects' of each other, but particular individual beings who can be spoken to.

  • cultural specificity or locatedness of myths or deities and ways of approaching these, including ritual forms (sparsely described in the lore). This means that the stories and poems – the understanding of the goddesses and gods and of the earth – have come from a particular period in history and particular places in the world. In a sense, the telling of the poetry and stories is rooted in culture and place.
  • the possibility of direct communication with deities or wights – not only can be spoken to but they will often speak back. The deities o and wights also are subject to the workings of Wyrd (Blain 2006, available http://ebooks.abc-clio.com).
  • References to myths and stories of the Aesir and Vanir - ‘the lore’, found in the Eddas and Sagas and some other mediaeval writings. Heathens will make reference to particular stories or poems, and explain to others where these can be found.

[edit] Rites and practices

[edit] Blot

Blót is the term for the historical Norse sacrifice in honour of the gods, usually focusing on one of the gods in the pantheon. Asatru blóts are often celebrated outdoors in nature, the celebrants sometimes clad in home-made Viking Age attire. A blót may be highly formalized, but the underlying intent resembles inviting and having an honored guest or family member in for dinner. Food and drink may be offered. Most of this will be consumed by the participants, and some of the drink will be poured out onto the soil as a libation. Home-brewed mead as the "Germanic" drink par excellence is popular.[22][23]

Heathens meeting in small groups on a regular (monthly, quarterly) basis will often refer to this as their blót. Offerings during a blot usually involve mead or other alcohol, sometimes food, sometimes song or poetry, specially written for the occasion or for a particular deity, is delivered as an offering. Rituals of blot (most Heathens in Britain will omit the Icelandic accented 'o') may be designed or even scripted for the occasion or may be spontaneous. Usual dress for a blot is whatever suits the seasons - many blots are outdoors, sometimes at sacred sites. Some Heathens will wear clothing reminiscent of Anglo-Saxon or Norse 'Viking' times, especially if the blot is open to the public or part of a larger pagan event (camps, conferences, etc.) Heathens who are also involved in reenactment are most likely to do this.

There is no single Heathen calendar of sacred days on which to make blot, and different groups or organisations celebrate their own festivals or sacred days as they see fit or as the season dictates: thus Winternights, for the end of summer and coming of winter, may be celebrated from early October to mid November in different areas of the UK. The festival most commonly celebrated is Yule, often over 12 days from the evening before winter solstice until New Year.

[edit] Sumbel

Sumbel (also spelled symbel) is a Norse and Anglo-Saxon drinking rite in which an intoxicating drink (usually mead or ale) is passed around an assembled table. At each passing of the drink, participants make a short speech, usually following the pattern of "Toast-Boast-Oath", see Bragarfull. The Toast honors some mentor, revered relative, or favorite god of the participant. The Boast is an opportunity for the participant to honour himself in terms of some good work accomplished. The Oath is a promise to carry out some good work in the future. Participants are not required to say anything and may simply pass the drink along. Oaths made during Sumbel are considered binding upon the individuals making them. Another common pattern is to toast to a god or virtue, then a hero or ancestor, and the final round being either open, or else given to either a boast or an oath.[24]

[edit] Seid

Seid and Spae are forms of "sorcery" or "witchcraft", the latter having some aspects of prophecy and shamanism. Historically, seid was considered ergi, that is, effeminate and unbefitting of a man. In the US, this widely misunderstood term is used to describe the practices of a minority of neopagans; in particular, Diana Paxson and her group Hrafnar, who practice what they call "oracular seid". In the UK, seidr relies less on formal ritual and more informal practices of healing (Blain, 2002b), protection, and for developing links with land and ancestors.. Jan Fries traces seid as an inspiration for his "seething" shamanic technique, though he is less concerned with precise historical reconstruction. It may be related - in past and present - to alterations of consciousness and negotiations with otherworld beings. Many British practitioners see this work as related to indigenous 'shamanic' practices dating back to the Iron and Bronze ages of Northern Europe, and potentially further. Other obvious links for seidr as ‘shamanic’ practice are with Sámi shamanism (Dubois 1999, Price 2002), (the Sámi being the nomadic reindeer-herding people indigenous to the north of Scandinavia and western Russia.) Seid and/or spae may be constituted as community practices, the best known of which is 'Oracular Seidr', i.e. ritual performed to gain knowledge, in which a seeress or seer, in an altered consciousness, speaks prophecy. Oracular Seidr is constructed differently in the UK, the US and elsewhere. US constructions (often including guided meditation, etc) are more formalised: in the UK, a community seid for knowledge is more likely to be related to contact with Landwights and local deities, with a ritual that is less formally prescribed (see Blain, 2002a). The singing of participants provides energy for the seeing and speaking of the seer, and in some UK practices this singing may be the only ritualised part of proceedings.

The berserkergangr may be described as a sort of religious ecstasy, associated with Odin, and thus a masculine variant of the 'effeminate' ecstasy of Seid.[25]

[edit] Galdr and runic magic

Galdr, already mentioned, may refer to chanted runes, but often refers to sung 'spells' of some kind. These include both 'new' poems and chants, and those from parts of the Eddas or from the Old English healing charms, such as the Nine Herbs Charm. Galdr-singers have many different ways to shape or craft their songs, and these may be combined with, for example, seid.

Many British Heathens use the Common Germanic Futhark (24 runes) or the Anglo-Saxon Futhorcs with from five to nine 'extra' runes, up to 33 in the case of the Northumbrian Futhorc, and a few, particularly Scottish Heathens, may also use the Scandinavian and Icelandic Younger Futharks for runic magic, which may involve galdr singing of rune names, carving taufr (charms), or drawing runes in the air or on materials, in addition to using runes on small slips for divination. Many Heathens use runes in some of their work, drawing runes for personal guidance or engraving their own ritual objects or indeed household items. However some heathens are known as rune specialists and others seek them out for teaching or for 'readings'.


Various practitioners such as 'Runic John' have recently written about their experiences with Seidr, Runes and Galdr, and the recent book by Johnson and Wallis (2005) explores in detail how one group in the south of England has developed its own ways of working with these techniques and traditions.

[edit] Ethics and spirituality

Blain (2002a) describes Heathen spirituality as a sense that spirituality is not separate from everyday life, but informs it. For instance, Heathens will talk about their gardening, how they are raising their children, their voluntary work in the community, or how they deal with people at their workplace, linking these to examples in 'the lore'. There is a prominent sense of individual merit and responsibility, combined with community worth. In particular ideas about fair play, taking responsibility for one's own actions, honouring the motives and actions of others, are seen to come from 'the lore'.

Heathen ethics is guided by an elaborate concept of 'soul' and 'self’, personal ørlög, and overall Wyrd. People's personal destinies are shaped in part by what is past, in part by what they and others are now doing, by the vows they take and contracts they enter into.

Germanic neopagan organizations are generally organized into democratic and republican forms of church government, as inspired by the parliamentary Things of the Viking era and subsequent parliamentary systems of Britain and the Scandinavian countries.[26][27], They promote individual rights and freedom of speech reminiscent of the free jarls of Norse saga.[28][29]

Solitary practice, or practice in small circles of friends or family is common. These are often called kindreds or hearths, although often they are not formal.[30]Germanic neopagan organizations have been active since the 1970's, but most of these larger groups are loose federations and do not require committed membership comparable to a church. Consequently, there is no central authority, and associations remain in a state of fluidity as factions form and break up again.[31] [32]

Germanic neopaganism is primarily bound together by common symbological and social concepts. Personal character and virtue is emphasized: truthfulness, self-reliance, and hospitality are important moral distinctions, underpinning an especially cherished notion of honour.[33]

Germanic neopaganism notably lacks any discussion of redemption, salvation, or perfection, as well as their conceptual precursors. Although some adherents[name a specific person/group] theorize an afterlife that involves a kind of rough justice, the Heathen moral system parts ways with other religions in its' egoist foundations. Germanic neopaganism does not formalize restraint on individual behavior. For example, it is inimical to lists of wholesale injunctions against specific behaviors.

Comparison of the Nine Noble Virtues of modern Germanic neopaganism, which are loosely based on the Havamal can be contrasted with the Judeo-Christian Ten Commandments. Such a comparison shows that it is not the actual behaviour (such as "thou shalt not steal") which are prescribed, but rather an emphasis on character traits, such as "truth", "self reliance" and "honour". It is left to the individual to figure out that stealing in most contexts will be in violation of such ideals. Consequently, some actions which other religions condemn wholesale, may be considered virtues by Germanic neopagans, as long as they are carried out shrewdly and in accord with personal honour, both in the eyes of the individual and the community. Individual pride is one such example.

Germanic neopaganism reveres the natural environment in principle; Germanic neopaganism opposes neither technology nor its material rewards. More mystical currents of Heathenry may be critical of industrialization or modern society, but even such criticism will focus on decadence, lack of virtue or balance, rather than being a radical criticism of technology itself. [9]

The belief in Wyrd - a concept of fatalism or determinism, similar to some Graeco-Roman concepts of destiny is a commonly held belief amongst most Germanic neopagans.[34][35]

[edit] Artistic output and influence

Originally grown out of 19th century Romanticism, the Viking revival had associations with the Gothic novel and Romantic art such as the Pre-Raphaelites or the art nouveau. Also of note is the influence of Richard Wagner's "Ring Cycle." Artistic taste of adherents are often related to the High Fantasy genre based on Germanic mythology. New Age currents are another influence, although not necessarily related. These elements may blend with traditional Germanic folklore.

Literature

  • In literature, there have been several novels published by Heathens, particularly Diana Paxson and Kveldulf Gundarsson under the name Stephen Grundy, both drawing on the Volsunga Saga and Nibelungenlied for inspiration.

Neofolk

  • Neofolk music in particular, counts Germanic paganism as one of its largest and most obvious influences. Many of the instruments used are traditional and the music is largely acoustic, with Heathen themes.

Black metal

  • The Black metal genre at the time of its formation in 1980s Norway was deeply anti-Christian, and had a stated goal of removing the influence of Christianity and other non-Scandinavian religions from Norwegian culture and to effect a return to the nation's Norse roots. The genre continues to be centered on Pagan (Pagan metal) or Satanic imagery, anti-Christian lyrics and occult themes. Often, there are also traits of White supremacy movements, particularly in the National Socialist black metal subgenre. Other subgenres of heavy metal with neopagan connections include Viking metal and Folk metal.

[edit] Symbolism

Popular symbols of Asatru/Germanic neopaganism are the Valknut, Mjollnir, the Irminsul, Yggdrasil and various other historical Germanic symbols. Depictions of Odin and Germanic deities are also common. Runes are popular, in particular the Odal, Tyr and Algiz runes.[36][37] The Odinic Rite additionally claims the Fylfot (Swastika) as an "ancient Odinist symbol".[38]

The Black Sun is a symbol used by Neonazi, occult and various esoteric groups in sometimes related currents. Additionally, Armanen variants of historic runes, such as the "Gibor rune" and isolated uses of the "Sig" rune indicate a Von Listian and, subsequently, a possible Third Reich influence.[39]

[edit] Notes

  1. ^ Wodening, Swain (2003) pp.13-14
  2. ^ Coulter, Hjuka (2003)
  3. ^ Lange, Hans-Jürgen (1998). Weisthor: Karl Maria Wiligut - Himmlers Rasputin und seine Erben.
  4. ^ Moynihan, Michael, Stephen Flowers (2001). The Secret King: Karl Maria Wiligut, Himmler's Lord of the Runes. Runa-Raven. ISBN 1885972210.
  5. ^ Goodrick-Clarke, Nicholas (1993). The Occult Roots of Nazism: Secret Aryan Cults and Their Influence on Nazi Ideology. NYU Press. ISBN 0814730604.
  6. ^ The positions of the AA, the AFA and the Troth:
    From the Asatru Alliance's Bylaws: "The Alliance is apolitical; it is not a front for, nor shall it promote any political views of the 'Right' or 'Left'. Our Sacred temples, groves and Moots shall remain free of any political manifestations." [1]
    From the Asatru Folk Assembly's Bylaws: "The belief that spirituality and ancestral heritage are related has nothing to do with notions of superiority. Asatru is not an excuse to look down on, much less to hate, members of any other race. On the contrary, we recognize the uniqueness and the value of all the different pieces that make up the human mosaic." [2]
    From the Troth's Bylaws: "Discrimination on the basis of race, gender, ethnic origin, or sexual orientation shall not be practiced by the Troth or any affiliated group, whether in membership decisions or in conducting any of its activities." [3]
  7. ^ Gardell, p.276. Referring to Stephen McNallen, Valgard Murray and Edred Thorsson; the respective founders of the AFA, the AA and the Troth, which are the three largest Ásatrú groups in the USA.
  8. ^ Gardell, Matthias (2003). Gods of the Blood: The Pagan Revival and White Separatism. Duke University Press, 269-283. ISBN 0-8223-3071-7.
  9. ^ Coulter, Hjuka (2003). Germanic Heathenry. Authorhouse. ISBN 1-4107-6585-7.

[edit] References

  • Coulter, Hjuka (2003). Germanic Heathenry. Authorhouse. ISBN 1-4107-6585-7.
  • Gardell, Matthias (2003). Gods of the Blood: The Pagan Revival and White Separatism. Duke University Press, 269-283. ISBN 0-8223-3071-7.
  • Strmiska, Michael (2006). “Heathenry, the past, and sacred sites in today’s Britain by Jenny Blain”, Modern Paganism in World Cultures: Comparative Perspectives. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 1-85109-608-6.
  • Wodening, Swain (2003). Hammer of the Gods: Anglo-Saxon Paganism in Modern Times. Global Book Publisher. ISBN 1-59457-006-X.
  • Blain, Jenny, 2002a. Nine Worlds of Seid-Magic: Ecstasy and neo-Shamanism in North European Paganism. London: Routledge.
  • Blain, Jenny, 2002b. 'Magic, healing or death? Issues of seidr, ‘balance” and morality in past and present'. In P. A. Baker and G Carr (eds) Practitioners, Practices and Patients: New Approaches to Medical Archaeology and Anthropology pp 161-171. London: Routledge
  • Blain, Jenny, 2006. 'Heathenry, the past, and sacred sites in today’s Britain'. In Modern Paganism in World Cultures: Comparative Perspectives ed. M. Strmiska. ABC-Clio. Available as e-book from http://ebooks.abc-clio.com .
  • Blain, Jenny and Robert J. Wallis, 2002. 'Contemporary Paganism and Archaeology: Irreconcilable?' Paper given at conference on Archaeology in the Public Domain, Sheffield, 9 March 2002. Online: available http://www.sacredsites.org.uk/papers/aypublic.html .
  • Dubois, T. 1999 Nordic religions in the Viking Age. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.
  • Harvey, Graham, 2006 (forthcoming) Listening People, Speaking Earth, 2nd Edition.
  • Hunt-Anschutz, Arlea, 2002 'Heathenry'. In The Encyclopedia of Modern Witchcraft and Neo-Paganism, Ed. S. Rabinovitch and J. Lewis, p. 126-7. New York: Citadel Press.
  • Johnson, Nathan J. and Robert J. Wallis, 2005. Galdrbok: Practical Heathen Runecraft, Shamanism and Magic. Winchester: Wykeham Press.
  • Price, Neil. 2002. The Viking Way: Religion and War in Late Iron Age Scandinavia. Uppsala: Uppsala University Press.

[edit] See also

[edit] External links

[edit] List of organizations

With the frequent renaming, merging and splitting of organizations, it is difficult to give a clear picture; the list below, sorted geographically, includes associations with a certain amount of structure and stability.

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