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This article covers in brief form the history of California until the 20th Century; for later events, see History of California (20th century). For additional information and more notes and citations, see the Main articles linked at the top of most sections.

History of California
To 1899
Gold Rush (1849)
American Civil War (1861-1865)
1900 to present
Maritime
Railroad
Los Angeles
San Diego
San Francisco

A field of California golden poppies circa 1910.

[edit] Pre-Columbian

California's Yosemite Valley.

The term pre-Columbian refers to the cultures of the Americas before significant European influence.

The remains of Arlington Springs Woman on Santa Rosa Island are among the traces of a very early habitation, dated to the last ice age (Wisconsin glaciation) about 13,000 years ago. At the time of the first European contact, Native American tribes were living in a land of oak woodlands, grassy hills, and broad beaches. Among them were the Chumash, Maidu, Miwok, Modoc, Mohave, Ohlone Shasta, and Tongva.

Coastal tribes were a major source of trading beads (wampum), which were produced from mussel shells using stone tools, while those in the northern Cascade Range traded obsidian, used for arrowheads, axe heads, and knives. Tribes in the Sierra Nevada foothills collected acorns from oak trees, ground them, and leached out the acidic tannin to make the flour edible.

In all, perhaps some 30 tribes (or culture groups) lived in the area of present-day California, gathered into perhaps six different language family groups, ranging from the early-arriving Hokan family in the mountainous far north and Colorado River basin in the south, to the recently arrived Uto-Aztekan of the desert Southeast. This cultural diversity was among the densest in North America; it was likely the result of a series of migrations and invasions during the last 10,000 years. See Map of California Tribes.

[edit] European exploration

During the 1500s, it has been estimated that perhaps 300,000 Native Americans were living within what is now California. The first European explorers, flying the flags of Spain and of England, explored along the coast of California, but no European settlements were established.

[edit] Hernán Cortés

Main article: Hernán Cortés

About 1530, Nuño Beltrán de Guzmán (President of New Spain) was told by an Indian slave of the Seven Cities of Cibola that had streets paved with gold and silver. About the same time, Hernán Cortés was attracted by stories of Ciguatan, a wonderful country far to the northwest, populated by Amazonish women and abounding with gold, pearls, and gems. The Spaniards conjectured that these places may be one and the same.

An expedition in 1533 discovered a bay, most likely that of La Paz, before experiencing difficulties and returning. Cortés accompanied expeditions in 1534 and 1535 without finding the sought-after city.

On May 3, 1535, Cortés claimed "Santa Cruz Island" (now known as the peninsula of Baja California), and laid out and founded the city that was to become LaPaz later that spring.

[edit] Francisco de Ulloa

Main article: Francisco de Ulloa

Also: Island of California

In July 1539, moved by the renewal of those stories, Cortés sent Francisco de Ulloa out with three small vessels. He made it to the mouth of the Colorado, then sailed around the peninsula as far as Cedros Island.

The name "California" was first applied in the account of this voyage. It can be traced to the fifth volume of a chivalric romance, Amadis de Gallia, arranged by Garci Ordóñez de Montalvo and first printed around 1510, in which a character travels through an island called "California" or "Califerne".

[edit] Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo

California is shown as an island on this 1650 map. The smaller islands located in the "channel" were mentioned in an early myth and subsequently included by mapmakers over the centuries who took it on faith that region had actually been explored.

Main article: Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo

The first European to explore the coast was Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo, a Portuguese navigator sailing for the Spanish Crown. In June, 1542 Cabrillo led an expedition in two ships from the west coast of what is now Mexico. He landed on September 28 at San Diego Bay, claiming what he thought was the Island of California for Spain.

Cabrillo and his crew landed on San Miguel, one of the Channel Islands, then continued north in an attempt to discover a supposed Strait of Anián. But Cabrillo died during this voyage, and the remainder of the exploration was led by Bartolomé Ferrelo, who sailed as far as the modern California-Oregon border.

[edit] Sir Francis Drake

Main article: Francis Drake

In 1579 the English explorer Sir Francis Drake was sailing the coastline of California when, on June 17, he found what he said was an excellent port, where he was able to repair and restock his vessels. Drake claimed the new land, what he called Nova Albion, in the name of Queen Elizabeth I. To this day, it is not known where he landed or the exact extent of the territory he claimed.^[1] What is known however, is that an Elizabethan coin from the 1600s was found at Olompali State Park in Novato, California during an archeological dig; Novato is within a day's journey from the coast of California at what is currently known as Drake's Bay. That coin is currently at a musuem under the direction of UC Berkeley. There is a legend that Drake left a copper plate on land, but it has never been found. A fake engraved plate was found by a professor who believed the story; the fake was created by students of his as a practical joke.

[edit] Sebastián Vizcaíno

Main article: Sebastián Vizcaíno

In 1602, the Spaniard Sebastián Vizcaíno explored California's coastline as far north as Monterey Bay. Besides that discovery, his major contributions to the state's history were the detailed charts he made of the coastal waters.

[edit] Other Spanish expeditions

• 1610: Tomas Cardova
• 1632: Francisco Ortega
• 1636: Francisco Ortega
• 1642: Luis Cestin de Canas
• 1644: Porter y Casanate
• 1667: Bernal de Pinadero
• 1683: Ysidro Otondo

[edit] Spanish colonization and governance

During the last quarter of the 18th century, the first European settlements were established.. Reacting to interest by Russia and possibly Great Britain in the fur-bearing animals of California, Spain created a series of Catholic missions, accompanied by troops and ranches, along the southern and central coast of California. These missions were intended to demonstrate the claim of the Spanish Crown to modern-day California.

Spain had maintained a number of missions and presidios in its richer lands (not including California) since 1493. The Spanish claims to the Northern provinces, excluding Santa Fe in New Mexico, were essentially ignored for almost 300 years. It wasn't until the threat of an incursion by Russia coming down from Alaska in 1765, however, that King Charles III of Spain felt such installations were necessary in Upper ("Alta") California. By then the Spanish empire could only afford a minimal effort. Alta California was to be settled by Franciscan monks protected by a few troops in California Missions. Between 1774 and 1791, the Crown sent forth a number of small expeditions to further explore and settle California and possibly the Pacific Northwest.

[edit] Gaspar de Portolà

Main article: Gaspar de Portolà

In May 1768, the Spanish Visitor General, José de Gálvez, planned a four-prong expedition to settle Alta California, two by sea and two by land, which Gaspar de Portolà volunteered to command.

The Portolà land expedition arrived at the site of present-day San Diego on June 29, 1769, where it established the Presidio of San Diego. Eager to press on to Monterey Bay, de Portolà and his group, consisting of Father Juan Crespi, sixty-three leather-jacket soldiers and a hundred mules, headed north on July 14. They moved quickly, reaching the present-day sites of Los Angeles on August 2, Santa Monica on August 3, Santa Barbara on August 19, San Simeon and Ragged Point on September 13 and the mouth of the Salinas River on October 1.

On October 31, de Portolà's explorers became the first Europeans known to view San Francisco Bay. Ironically the Manila Galleons had sailed along this coast for almost 200 years by then. They never made it to Monterey Bay on that journey. The group returned to San Diego in 1770. Leaving Captain Pedro Fages in charge, de Portolà sailed for San Blas, Nayarit, Mexico, on June 9.

[edit] Junípero Serra

Main article: Junípero Serra

A portrait of Junípero Serra.

Junípero Serra was a Majorcan (Spain) Franciscan who founded the Alta California mission chain. After King Carlos III ordered the Jesuits expelled from "New Spain" on February 3, 1768, Serra was named "Father Presidente."

Serra founded San Diego de Alcalá in 1769. Later that year, Serra, Governor de Portolà and a small group of men moved north, up the Pacific Coast. They reached Monterey in 1770, where Serra founded the second Alta California mission, San Carlos Borromeo.

[edit] Alta California missions

Main article: Spanish missions in California

The California Missions comprise a series of religious outposts established by Spanish Catholic Dominicans, Jesuits, and Franciscans, to spread the Christian doctrine among the local Native Americans, but with the added benefit of giving Spain a toehold in the frontier land. The missions introduced European livestock, fruits, vegetables, and industry into the California region. Most missions were small with normally two Franciscans and six to eight soldiers in residence. All of these buildings were built largely with unpaid native labor under Franciscan supervision. In addition to the presidio (royal fort) and pueblo (town), the misión was one of the three major agencies employed by the Spanish crown in an attempt to cheaply extend its borders and consolidate its colonial territories. None of these missions were completely self-supporting, requiring continued (albeit modest) financial support. Starting with the onset of the Mexican War of Independence in 1810, this support largely disappeared and the missions and their converts were left on their own.

A view of the restored Mission San Juan Bautista and its three-bell campanario ("bell wall") in 2004.

The Mexican Congress passed An Act for the Secularization of the Missions of California on August 17, 1833. Mission San Juan Capistrano was the very first to feel the effects of this legislation the following year. The Franciscans soon thereafter abandoned the missions, taking with them most everything of value, after which the locals typically plundered the mission buildings for construction materials.

The missions themselves were situated approximately 30 miles (48 kilometers) apart, so that they were separated by one day's long ride on horseback along the 600–mile (966–kilometer) long El Camino Real trail (Spanish for "The Royal Highway"), also known as the California Mission Trail. Tradition has it that the padres sprinkled mustard seeds along the trail in order to mark it with bright yellow flowers. A number of mission structures survive today or have been rebuilt, and many have congregations established since the beginning of the 20th century. The highway and missions have become for many a romantic symbol of an idyllic and peaceful past. The "Mission Revival Style" was an architectural movement that drew its inspiration from this idealized view of California's past.

[edit] Military districts

Four presidios, strategically placed along the California coast, served to protect the missions and other Spanish settlements in Upper California. Each of these posts functioned as a base of military operations for a specific region. The final district, El Presidio de Sonoma, or "Sonoma Barracks", was established in 1836 by Mariano Guadalupe Vallejo (the "Commanclate-General of the Northern Frontier of Alta California") as a part of Mexico's strategy to impede Russian expansion plans into the region.

[edit] Other nations

• British seafaring Captain James Cook, midway through his third and final voyage of exploration in 1778, sailed along the west coast of North America aboard the HMS Resolution, mapping the coast from California all the way to the Bering Strait.
• In 1786 Jean-François de Galaup, comte de La Pérouse, led a group of scientists and artists on a voyage of exploration ordered by Louis XVI and were welcomed in Monterey. They compiled an account of the Californian mission system, the land and the people. Traders, whalers and scientific missions followed in the next decades.^[2]
• Beginning in the early 1800s, fur trappers of the Russian Empire explored the coast and, in 1812, set up a fortified trading post at Fort Ross in modern-day Sonoma County. They hunted for sea otter pelts as far south as San Diego.

[edit] Ranchos

The Spanish (and later the Mexicans) encouraged settlement with large land-grants, called ranchos, used to raise cattle and sheep. Cow hides (at roughly $1.00 each) and fat (known as tallow, used to make candles as well as soaps) were the primary exports of California until the mid-19th century. The owners of these ranchos were called rancheros and styled themselves after the Spanish nobility, though they had to import all manufactured goods and had little real material wealth. Their workers were often local Native Americans who had learned to speak Spanish and ride horses.

The first quarter of the 19th century continued the slow colonization of the southern and central California coast by Spanish missionaries, ranchers, and troops. By 1820, Spanish influence was marked by the chain of missions reaching from San Diego to just north of today's San Francisco Bay area, and extended inland approximately 50 to 100 miles from the missions. Outside of this zone, perhaps 200,000 to 250,000 Native Americans were continuing to lead traditional lives. The Adams-Onís Treaty, signed in 1819 set the northern boundary of the Spanish claims at the 42nd parallel, effectively creating today's northern boundary of California.

[edit] Mexican era

[edit] General

Substantial changes occurred during the second quarter of the century. Spanish California became a Mexican state after Mexican independence in 1821, and under Mexican control, the missions faded in importance; ranching and trade increased. By the mid-1840s, the increased presence of Americans made the northern part of the state diverge from southern California, where the Spanish "Californios" dominated.

By 1846, California had a Spanish-speaking population of just 4,000, tiny even compared to the sparse population of states in Mexico proper. The "Californios," as they were known, consisted of about 800 families, mostly concentrated on a few large ranchos. About 1,300 Americans and a very mixed group of about 500 Europeans, scattered mostly from Monterey to Sacramento dominated trading as the Californios dominated ranching. In terms of adult males, the two groups were about equal, but the Americans were more recent arrivals.

[edit] Other nationalities

• In this period, American and British trappers began entering California in search of beaver. Using the Siskiyou Trail, Old Spanish Trail, and later, the California Trail, these trapping parties arrived in California, often without the knowledge or approval of the Mexican authorities, and laid the foundation for the arrival of later Gold Rush era Forty-Niners, farmers and ranchers.

• In 1840, the American adventurer, writer and lawyer Richard Henry Dana wrote of his experiences aboard ship off California in the 1830s in "Two Years Before the Mast" (etext [1])

• The leader of a French scientific expedition to California, Eugene Duflot de Mofras, wrote in 1840 "...it is evident that California will belong to whatever nation chooses to send there a man-of-war and two hundred men." In 1841, General Vallejo wrote Governor Alvarado that "...there is no doubt that France is intriguing to become mistress of California," but a series of troubled French governments did not uphold French interests in the area. During disagreements with Mexicans, the German-Swiss Francophile John Sutter threatened to raise the French flag over California and place himself and his settlement, New Helvetia, under French protection.

[edit] American immigrants

Main article: California Trail

Although a small number of American traders and trappers had lived in California since the early 1830s, the first organized overland party of American immigrants was the Bidwell-Bartleson party of 1841. With mules and on foot, this pioneering group groped their way across the continent using the still untested California Trail. In 1844, Caleb Greenwood guided the first settlers to take wagons over the Sierra Nevada. In 1846, the Donner Party became the most hapless group of emigrants to follow the trail.

[edit] United States era

[edit] American conquest

Main article: Mexican-American War

When war was declared on May 13, 1846 between the United States and Mexico, it took almost two months (mid-July 1846) for definite word of war to get to California. U.S. consul Thomas O. Larkin, stationed in Monterey, on hearing rumors of war tried to keep peace between the Americans and the small Mexican military garrison commanded by José Castro. American army captain John C. Frémont with about 60 well-armed men had entered California in December 1845 and was making a slow march to Oregon when they received word that war between Mexico and the U.S. was imminent. [2]

A replica of the first "Bear Flag" now at El Presidio de Sonoma, or Sonoma Barracks.

On June 15, 1846, some 30 non-Mexican settlers, mostly Americans, staged a revolt and seized the small Mexican garrison in Sonoma. They raised the "Bear Flag" of the California Republic over Sonoma. It lasted one week until the U.S. Army, led by Fremont, took over on June 23. The California state flag today is based on this original Bear Flag, and continues to contain the words "California Republic."

Commodore John Drake Sloat, on hearing of imminent war and the revolt in Sonoma, ordered his naval forces to occupy Yerba Buena (present San Francisco) on July 7 and raise the American flag. On July 15, Sloat transferred his command to Commodore Robert F. Stockton, a much more aggressive leader. Commodore Stockton, put Frémont's forces under his orders. On July 19th, Frémont's "California Battalion" swelled to about 160 additional men from newly arrived settlers near Sacramento, and he entered Monterey in a joint operation with some of Stockton's sailors and marines. The official word had been received -- the Mexican-American war was on. The American forces easily took over California; within days they controlled San Francisco, Sonoma, and Sutter's Fort in Sacramento.

Mexican General Castro and Governor Pio Pico fled from Los Angeles. When Stockton's forces entered Los Angeles unresisted on August 13, 1846 the nearly bloodless conquest of California seemed complete. Stockton, however, left too small a force (21 men) in Los Angeles, and Californios, acting on their own and without help from Mexico, forced the small American garrison to retire in late September. Reinforcements sent by Stockton were repulsed in a small battle at San Pedro. Meanwhile, General Kearny with a much reduced squadron of 100 dragoons finally reached California after a grueling march across New Mexico, Arizona and the Sonora desert. They fought an inconclusive skirmish at San Pascual California where 18 of Kearny's weary troopers were killed--the largest skirmish in California.

Stockton rescued Kearny's surrounded forces and their combined forces moved northward from San Diego, entering Los Angeles without opposition on January 10, 1847. Three days later, in the "Cahuenga Capitulation," the last significant body of Californios surrendered to Frémont. That marked the end of the Californio struggle. On January 28, 1847, Army lieutenant William Tecumseh Sherman and his army unit arrived in Monterey, California as American forces in the pipeline continued to stream into California. On March 15, 1847, Col. Jonathan D. Stevenson’s Seventh Regiment of New York Volunteers of about 900 men start arriving in California. All of these men were in place when gold was discovered in January 1848.

The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, signed on February 2, 1848, marked the end of the Mexican-American War. In that treaty, the United States agreed to pay Mexico $18,250,000; Mexico formally ceded California (and other northern territories) to the United States, and a new international boundary was drawn; San Diego Bay is one of the only natural harbors in California south of San Francisco, and to claim all this strategic water, the border was slanted to include it.

[edit] Gold Rush

Main article: California Gold Rush

In January 1848, gold was discovered at Sutter's Mill in the Sierra Nevada foothills about 40 miles east of Sacramento — beginning the California Gold Rush.

The miners and merchants settled in towns along what is now State Highway 49, and settlements sprang up along the Siskiyou Trail as gold was discovered elsewhere in California (notably in Siskiyou County). The nearest deep-water seaport was San Francisco Bay, and San Francisco became the home for bankers who financed exploration for gold.

The Gold Rush brought the world to California. By 1855, some 300,000 "Forty-Niners" had arrived from every continent; many soon left, of course--some rich, most not very rich. A precipitous drop in the Native American population occurred in the decade after the discovery of gold.

[edit] Statehood: 1849-1850

In 1847-49 California was run by the U.S. military; local government continued to be run by alcades (mayors) in most places; but now some were Americans. Bennett Riley, the last military governor, called a consitutional convention to meet in Monterrey in September 1849. Its 48 delegates were mostly pre-1846 American settlers; 8 were Californios. They unanimously outlawed slavery and set up a state government that operated for 10 months before California was given official statehood by Congress on September 9, 1850 as part of the Compromise of 1850. ^[3] A series of small towns were used briefly as the state capital until finally Sacramento was selected in 1854.

[edit] The Civil War

Main article: California and the Civil War

Because of the distance factor, California's played a minor role in the American Civil War. Although many settlers sympathized with the Confederacy they were not allowed to organize and their newspapers were closed down. Former Senator Senator William Gwin, a Confederate sympathizer, was arrested and fled to Europe. Powerful capitalists dominated in Californian politics through their control of mines, shipping, and finance controlled the state through the new Republican party. Nearly all the men who volunteered as soldiers stayed in the West to guard facilities. Some 2,350 men in the California Column marched east across Arizona in 1862 to expel the Confederates from Arizona and New Mexico. The Californians spent most of their time fighting hostile Indians and guarding the Southwest against a possible Confederate invasion.

[edit] Labor politics and the rise of nativism

After the Civil War ended in 1865, California continued to grow rapidly. Independent miners were largely displaced by large corporate mining operations. Railroads began to be built, and both the railroad companies and the mining companies began to hire large numbers of laborers. The decisive event was the opening of the transcontinental railroad in 1869; six days by train brought a traveller from Chicago to San Francisco, compared to six months by ship. Thousands of Chinese men arrived, lured by high cash wages. They were exp[elled from the mne fields. Most returned to China after the Central Pacific was built. Those who stayed mostly moved to the Chinatown in San Francisco and a few other cities, where they were relatively safe from violent attacks they suffered elsewhere.

From 1850 through 1900, anti-Chinese nativist sentiment resulted in the passage of innumerable laws, many of which remained in effect well into the middle of the 20th century. The most flagrant episode was probably the creation and ratification of a new state constitution in 1879. Thanks to vigorous lobbying by the anti-Chinese Workingmen's Party, led by Dennis Kearney (an immigrant from Ireland), Article XIX, section 4 forbade corporations from hiring Chinese coolies, and empowered all California cities and counties to completely expel Chinese persons or to limit where they could reside. It was repealed in 1952.

The 1879 constitutional convention also dispatched a message to Congress pleading for strong immigration restrictions, which led to the passage of the Chinese Exclusion Act in 1882. The Act was upheld by the U.S. Supreme Court in 1889, and it would not be repealed by Congress until 1943. Similar sentiments led to the development of a Gentlemen's Agreement with Japan, by which Japan voluntarily agreed to restrict emigration to the United States. California also passed an Alien Land Act which barred aliens, especially Asians, from holding title to land. Because it was difficult for people born in Asia to obtain U.S. citizenship until the 1960s, land ownership titles were held by their American-born children, who were full citizens. The law was overturned by the California Supreme Court as unconstitutional in 1952.

In 1886, when a Chinese laundry owner challenged the constitutionality of a San Francisco ordinance clearly designed to drive Chinese laundries out of business, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled in his favor, and in doing so, laid the theoretical foundation for modern equal protection constitutional law. See Yick Wo v. Hopkins, 118 U.S. 356 (1886). Meanwhile, even with severe restrictions on Asian immigration, tensions between unskilled workers and wealthy landowners persisted up to and through the Great Depression. Novelist Jack London writes of the struggles of workers in the city of Oakland in his visionary classic, Valley of the Moon, a title evoking the pristine situation of Sonoma County between sea and mountains, Redwoods and Oaks, fog and sunshine.

[edit] Rise of the railroads

Main article: California and the railroads

The establishment of America's transcontinental rail lines permanently linked California to the rest of the country, and the far-reaching transportation systems that grew out of them during the century that followed contributed immeasurably to the state’s unrivaled social, political, and economic development.

[edit] Feats of engineering

Beginning at the turn of the twentieth century, there were several daring feats of engineering in Californian history. First is the Los Angeles Aqueduct, which runs from eastern California through the Mojave Desert and its Antelope Valley to dry Los Angeles far to the south. Finished in 1911, it was the brain-child of the self-taught William Mulholland and is still in use today. Creeks flowing from the eastern Sierra are diverted into the aqueduct. This attracts controversy from time to time since this withholds water from Mono Lake — an especially otherworldly and beautiful ecosystem — and from farmers in the Owens Valley. See also California Water Wars.

Other feats are the building of Hoover Dam (which is in Nevada, but provides power and water to Southern California), Hetch Hetchy Reservoir, Shasta Dam, and the California Aqueduct, taking water from northern California to dry and sprawling southern California. Another project was the draining of Lake Tulare, which, during high water was the largest fresh-water lake inside an American state. This created a large wet area amid the dry San Joaquin Valley and swamps abounded at its shores. By the 1970s, it was completely drained, but it attempts to resurrect itself during heavy rains.

[edit] Land grants

An important development in the early twentieth century was the success of a series of lawyers who exploited differences between Spanish law and Anglo-Saxon common law to cut up the old Spanish land grants and acquire the land for themselves and their business allies. One famous seizure was the part of the Santa Ana grant that became the City of Anaheim, which was divided and eventually sold to German and American farmers. A number of other Spanish land-grants were protected for their owners for a time, notably the Irvine Ranch in Orange County.

[edit] Notes

[edit] See also

• California
• History of California (20th century)
• Maritime history of California

[edit] References

• Hubert Howe Bancroft. The Works of Hubert Howe Bancroft, vol 18-24, History of California to 1890]
• Beebe (ed.), Rose Marie, Senkewicz, Robert M. (ed.) (2001). Lands of promise and despair; chronicles of early California, 1535-1846. Santa Clara, Calif.: Santa Clara University.
• H.W. Brands. The Age of Gold: The California Gold Rush and the New American Dream (2003)
• Burns, John F. and Richard J. Orsi, eds; Taming the Elephant: Politics, Government, and Law in Pioneer California University of California Press, 2003
• Camphouse, M. (1974). Guidebook to the Missions of California. Anderson, Ritchie & Simon, Los Angeles, CA. ISBN 0378037927.
• Chartkoff, Joseph L., Chartkoff, Kerry Kona (1984). The archaeology of California. Stanford: Stanford University Press.
• Charles E. Chapman; A History of California: The Spanish Period Macmillan, 1991
• Dillon, Richard (1975). Siskiyou Trail. New York: McGraw Hill.
• Drager, K., and Fracchia, C. (1997). The Golden Dream: California from Gold Rush to Statehood. Graphic Arts Center Publishing Company, Portland, OR. ISBN 1558683127.
• Fagan, Brian (2003). Before California: An archaeologist looks at our earliest inhabitants. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers.
• Gutierrez (ed.), Ramon A., Richard J. Orsi (ed.) (1998). Contested Eden California before the gold rush. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press.
• Heizer, Robert F. (1974). The destruction of California Indians. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press.
• Hunt, Aurora (1951). Army of the Pacific. Arthur Clark Company.
• Johnson, P., ed. (1964). The California Missions. Lane Book Company, Menlo Park, CA.
• McLean, James (2000). California Sabers. Indiana University Press.
• Carolyn Merchant, ed. Green Versus Gold: Sources In California'S Environmental History (1998) readings in primary and secondary sources
• Moorhead, Max L. (1991). The Presidio: Bastion Of The Spanish Borderlands. University of Oklahoma Press, Norman, OK. ISBN 0806123176.
• Moratto, Michael J., Fredrickson, David A. (1984). California archaeology. Orlando: Academic Press.
• Richard B. Rice et al, The Elusive Eden: A New History of California (1988)
• Andrew F. Rolle. California: A History 6th ed. (2003)
• Kevin Starr, Americans and the California Dream, 1850-1915 (1986)
• Strobridge, William F. (1994). Regulars in the Redwoods, The U.S. Army in Northern California, 1852-1861. Arthur Clark Company.
• Sucheng, Chan, and Spencer C. Olin, eds. Major Problems in California History (1996), primary and secondary documents
• Utley, Robert M. (1997). A life wild and perilous; mountain men and the paths to the Pacific. New York: Henry Holt and Co..
• Wright, R. (1950). California's Missions. Hubert A. and Martha H. Lowman, Arroyo Grande, CA.
• Young, S., and Levick, M. (1988). The Missions of California. Chronicle Books LLC, San Francisco, CA. ISBN 0811819388.
• Rawls, James and Walton Bean (2003). California: An Interpretive History. McGraw-Hill, New York, NY. ISBN 0070524114. 8th edition
• Robert A. Burchell, "The Loss of a Reputation; or, The Image of California in Britain before 1875," California Historical Quarterly 53 (Summer I974): 115-30, stories about Gold Rush lawlessness slowed immigration for two decades

1. ^ Sir Francis Drake's Lost Harbor Found at Whale Cove, Oregon. Retrieved on November 18, 2005.
2. ^ The French In Early California. Ancestry Magazine. Retrieved on March 24, 2006.
3. ^ Richard B. Rice et al, The Elusive Eden (1988) 191-95

[edit] External links

• Gold, Greed & Genocide
• "African Ancestry in California: More about Queen Califia" at the AfriGeneas: African Ancestored Genealogy official website.
• "Snakes in the Grass: Copperheads in Contra Costa?" article by William Mero at the Contra Costa County Historical Society official website.
• "Why it's called 'California' ", an excerpt from a doctoral dissertation by Craig Chalquist.
• Robert B. Honeyman Jr. Collection of Early Californian and Western American Pictorial Material in Trove.net
• The French in Early California
• Museum of the Siskiyou Trail

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Counties	Alameda | Alpine | Amador | Butte | Calaveras | Colusa | Contra Costa | Del Norte | El Dorado | Fresno | Glenn | Humboldt | Imperial | Inyo | Kern | Kings | Lake | Lassen | Los Angeles | Madera | Marin | Mariposa | Mendocino | Merced | Modoc | Mono | Monterey | Napa | Nevada | Orange | Placer | Plumas | Riverside | Sacramento | San Benito | San Bernardino | San Diego | San Francisco | San Joaquin | San Luis Obispo | San Mateo | Santa Barbara | Santa Clara | Santa Cruz | Shasta | Sierra | Siskiyou | Solano | Sonoma | Stanislaus | Sutter | Tehama | Trinity | Tulare | Tuolumne | Ventura | Yolo | Yuba