General Motors EV1

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General Motors EV1
EV1
Production Location: GM Lansing Craft Centre, Lansing, MI
Production Quantity (2 runs): 1117
Predecessor: Prototype: Impact
Class: Subcompact Battery Electric 2-seat commuter vehicle
Drive wheels Front
Motor location: Front
Traction Motor: 3-phase AC Induction
Controller cooling: Liquid
Charger: Outboard AC Magnecharge
Charging connector: 6.6 kW Inductive paddle - requires specialized 220 VAC charging station
Charger cooling: Air
Opportunity charging: with portable 110vac charger carried in trunk (VRLA only)
Charge time VRLA: 5.5-6 hours
NiMH: 6-8 hours
Battery cooling: Gen1: air blower
Gen2: Vehicle air conditioner
Pack voltage: VRLA: 312 V
NiMH: 343 V
Battery type: 26 modules:
VRLA (Valve Regulated Lead Acid), 1310 lb
NiMH, 1147 lb
All Gen 1 (1997) vehicles were first equipped with Delphi VRLA batteries, which were later replaced with Panasonic VRLA batteries.
A few Gen 2 (1999) vehicles were originally equipped with Panasonic VRLA batteries, but most Gen 2 vehicles were equipped with Ovonics NiMH batteries.
Battery capacity: VRLA (Delphi) 53 Ah; (Panasonic) 60Ah
NiMH: 77 Ah
Battery location: "T" (between and behind seats)
Range: VRLA: 55-95 miles
NiMH: 75-150 miles
Maximum speed: 80 mph (computer limited)
Performance: 0-60 time -<8 seconds.
Mileage: ? miles/100 kWh

0.179 kWh/mi charged
0.373 kWh/mi charge cycle
Transmission: single speed reduction integrated with motor and differential
Axles: Halfshafts with constant velocity joints
Similar: ACP tzero
Honda EV Plus
Tesla Roadster
Seating: Bucket seats for driver and one passenger
Included: Heat pump (heater/AC), power steering, power brakes, power windows, keyless entry pad, keyless ignition pad, AM/FM CD player, Antilock Brakes, Airbags and Three-Point Belts for Driver and Passenger, Aluminum Wheels, Low Rolling Resistance Tires
MSRP: Unknown - Lease only. Estimated at $33,995 to $43,995
This article is part of the General Motors automobile series.
"EV1" redirects here. For other uses, see EV1 (disambiguation).

The EV1 was the first production quality battery electric vehicle produced by General Motors in the United States and, at the time, was the only electric vehicle in the history of the company to bear the "General Motors" badge.

GM leased over 800 EV1 cars out of about 1100 manufactured[1] with the provision that after the three-year leases were up, the cars reverted to the company. They were available in California and Arizona and could be serviced at designated Saturn dealers.

The purpose of the EV1 was, in part, to satisfy California's Zero-emissions vehicle mandate initiated in 1990. The ZEV program specified that by 1998, 2% of all new cars sold were to have no emissions. GM stated that they spent over $1 billion developing and marketing the EV1, though much of this cost was defrayed by the Clinton Administration's $1.25 Billion Partnership for a New Generation of Vehicles (PNGV)[2] project.[3][4]

In late 2003, GM cancelled the EV1 program.[5][6] Despite unfulfilled waiting lists and positive feedback from the lessees, GM stated that it could not sell enough of the cars to make the EV1 profitable.[7] GM also cited a lack of demand.

The price for the car used to compute lease payments was $33,995 to $43,995, which made for lease payments of $299 to over $574 per month. One industry official said that each EV1 cost the company about $80,000, including research and development costs.[8] The vehicle's lease prices also depended on available state rebates. At that time, the cost for the electricity used to power the car was computed to be 1/3 to 1/2 the cost of the equivalent amount of gasoline [9], and since that time increases in gas prices have made electricity relatively even less expensive.

Contents

[edit] Technology

The EV1 was a 'purpose built' electric vehicle, not a conversion of an existing vehicle or drivetrain. General Motors used many advanced technologies including:

  • Aluminum frame
  • Dent resistant side-panels
  • Anti-lock brakes
  • Traction control
  • Heat pump (Heater/AC)
  • Keyless entry / keyless ignition
  • Special one-way thermal glass to allow for better insulation
  • Regenerative braking
  • Self-repairing tires
  • Very low drag coefficient - Cd~0.19, CdA~0.36 m² (3.95 ft²)
  • Super light alloy mag wheels
  • Low-rolling resistance tires


Most of these technologies were included to improve the overall efficiency of the EV1.

The first generation EV1s used lead-acid batteries in 1996 (as model year 1997) and a second generation batch with nickel metal hydride batteries in 1999. Some of the Gen 1 EV1's were refurbished and upgraded to Panasonic Lead Acid batteries.

The Gen 1 cars got 55 to 75 miles (90 to 120 km) per charge with the Delco-manufactured lead-acid batteries, 75 to 100 miles (120 to 160 km) with the Gen 2 Panasonic lead-acid batteries, and 75 to 150 miles (120 to 240 km) per charge with Gen 2 Ovonic nickel-metal hydride batteries. Recharging took as much as eight hours for a full charge (although one could get an 80% charge in two to three hours).[10] The battery pack consisted of 26 12-volt lead-acid batteries holding 67.4 MJ (18.7 kWh) of energy or 26 13.2-volt nickel-metal hydride batteries which held 95.1 MJ (26.4 kWh) of energy.

A modified EV1 prototype set a land speed record for production electric vehicles of 183 mph (295 km/h) in 1994.

[edit] Consumer Experience

The EV1 driving and ownership experience was unlike a conventional petrol (gasoline) or diesel vehicle. The EV1 had the lowest wind resistance of any production vehicle in history, with a Cd of 0.195, while typical production cars have Cd's in the 0.3 to 0.4 range.[11] As a result, at highway speeds, the only audible noise was often the steady thrum of the tires, with nothing from wind or motors. At lower speeds, and at stoplights, there was no noise at all, save for a slight whine from the single-speed gear reduction unit. The EV1 could accelerate from 0-60mph in the 8 second range. Top speed was limited to 80 MPH, though the EV1's propulsion system and aerodynamic shape were theoretically capable of 190 MPH with modified gearing. Speed, range, and various other numbers were displayed by digital readouts spanning a thin curved strip just under the windshield and well above the dashboard.

The home charging installation was about 1.5'x2'x5' with integrated heatsinks and resembled a gasoline pump. Charging itself was entirely inductive, and accomplished by placing a plastic paddle in the front port of the EV1.

[edit] Cancellation

In 2001, the California Air Resources Board modified the ZEV Mandate[12] to allow manufacturers to claim partial ZEV credit for hybrid vehicles. General Motors and DaimlerChrysler then sued the state of California and CARB, alleging that the new ZEV rules violated a federal law barring states from regulating fuel economy.[13] In response, CARB removed the requirement for electric vehicles from the ZEV mandate in 2003, and GM cancelled the EV1 program soon thereafter.[14]

The last private lease expired in August of 2004. Upon lease expiration, the cars were put into storage at a facility in Burbank, California. GM donated a small fraction of the total of EV1s to colleges and universities for engineering students, and to several museums, including the Smithsonian Institution. By March 15, 2005 the last 78 in storage had been transferred to the GM Desert Proving Grounds in Mesa, Arizona for disposal, crushing, and recycling.

Over a hundred people offered to purchase the electric cars and waive such liability as they were able, but GM refused. GM more recently stated that they would be subject to product liability and that the policies would require them to provide service and replacement parts for ten years.[15]

The EV1 has been called a failure by business publications such as the Wall Street Journal [16] GM believes that the electric car venture was not a failure, and that the EV1 was doomed when the expected breakthrough in battery technology did not take place.[17] There were additional practical reasons for the EV1's cancellation. The NiMH battery packs that improved range came with their own set of problems; GM had to use a less-efficient charging algorithm and waste power on air conditioning to prevent them from overheating.[18]

[edit] Controversy

EV1s crushed by General Motors
Enlarge
EV1s crushed by General Motors

Many consumers and government officials questioned General Motors' commitment to the EV1 program. Inadequate marketing and artificially constrained supply have led some to believe the EV1 program was intended to fail, and to prove that electric vehicles were not feasible. Also of concern was GM's insistence on repossessing and destroying all EV1s, rather than selling them at the termination of the program, and GM's ties with the oil industry [citation needed]. GM insiders later provided documentation of long waiting lists that went unfulfilled.

The process of obtaining an EV1 was difficult. The vehicle could not be purchased outright. Instead, General Motors offered a closed-end lease for three years, with no renewal or residual purchase options. The EV1 was only available from specialist Saturn dealerships, and only in California and Arizona.

Before reviewing leasing options, a potential lessee would be taken through a 'pre-qualification' process in order to learn how the EV1 was different from other vehicles. Next came a waiting list with no scheduled delivery date. After two to six months, the lessee would be allotted a vehicle. Installation of a home charger took one to two weeks.[19]

A documentary about the demise of the EV1 and other electric vehicles entitled Who Killed the Electric Car? debuted on June 30, 2006. Several weeks before the debut of the movie, the Smithsonian Institution announced that its EV1 display was being permanently removed and the EV1 car put into storage. Although GM is a major financial contributor to the museum, both parties denied that this fact contributed to the removal of the display.[20][21] According to the museum, the removal of the EV1 from display was a necessary aspect of its renovation.[22] The space where the EV1 stood has been filled by Stanley, an unmanned Volkswagen Touareg SUV.[23]

According to the interview with Rick Wagoner in the June 2006 issue of Motor Trend magazine, the worst decision of his tenure was "axing the EV1 electric-car program and not putting the right resources into hybrids. It didn’t affect profitability, but it did affect image."[24][25]

[edit] EV1 Drivetrain Prototypes

EV1 shown plugged into charging station
Enlarge
EV1 shown plugged into charging station

General Motors revealed several prototype variants of the EV1 drivetrain at the 1998 Detroit Auto Show. The models included diesel/electric parallel hybrid, gas turbine/electric series hybrid, fuel cell/electric version and compressed natural gas low emission internal combustion engine version.[26][27]

The new platform was a four-passenger variant of the EV1, lengthened by 19". For hybrid and electric vehicles, the battery pack was upgraded to 44 NiMH cells, arranged in "I" formation down the centerline, which could fully recharge in just 2 hours using onboard 220 V induction charger; additional power units were installed in the trunk, thus complementing the 3rd generation 137 hp AC Induction electric motor installed in the hood. Hybrid modifications retained the capability of all-electric ZEV propulsion for up to 40 miles (64.4 km).

[edit] EV1 CNG

The CNG variant was the only non-electric vehicle in the line-up, even though it employed the same up-stretched platform. It used a modified Suzuki 1.0 L turbocharged I3 all-aluminum OHC engine installed under the hood. Due to a very high octane rating of the CNG (allowing for a greater compression ratio), this small engine was able to deliver 72 hp at 5500 rpm.

The batteries were replaced with two CNG tanks capable of maximum operating pressure of 3000 psi. The tanks could be refueled from a single nozzle in only 4 minutes. In-tank solenoids shut off the fuel during refueling and engine idle, and a pressure relief device safeguarded against excessive temperature and pressure. With the help of continuously variable transmission, the car accelerated 0 to 60 mph (96.6 km/h) in 11 seconds. The maximum range was 350 to 400 miles, and fuel economy was 60 mpg (in gasoline equivalent).

[edit] EV1 Series Hybrid

EV1 series hybrid prototype at EVS-16 in Beijing, 1999
Enlarge
EV1 series hybrid prototype at EVS-16 in Beijing, 1999

The series hybrid prototype had a gas turbine engine APU placed in the trunk. A single-stage, single-shaft, recuperated gas turbine unit with a high-speed permanent-magnet AC generator was provided by Williams International; it weighed 220 lb (99.8 kg), measured 20 inches (50.8 cm) in diameter by 22 inches (55.9 cm) long and was running between 100,000 and 140,000 rpm. The turbine could run on multiple fuels, from reformulated gasoline to compressed natural gas. The APU started automatically when the battery charge dropped below 40% and delivered 40 kW of electrical power, enough to achieve speeds up to 80 mph (128.8 km/h) and to return the car's 44 NiMH cells to a 50% charge level.

A fuel tank capacity of 6.5 gallons (24.6 l) and fuel economy of 60 to 100 mpg (3.9 to 2.4 L/100 km) in hybrid mode, depending on the driving conditions, allowed for a highway range of more than 390 miles (627.6 km). The car accelerated to 0-60 mph (96.6 km/h) in 9 seconds.

[edit] EV1 Parallel Hybrid

The parallel hybrid variant featured 1.3 L turbocharged DTI diesel engine from Isuzu delivering 75 hp, installed in the trunk along with an additional 6.5 hp DC motor/generator; the two motors drove the rear wheels through an electronically controlled transaxle. When combined with the AC induction motor which powered the front wheels, all three power units delivered a total output of 219 hp, accelerating the car to 0-60 mph (96.6 km/h) in 7 seconds. A single tank of diesel fuel could keep the car running for 550 miles with a fuel economy of 80 mpg.

A similar technology is used in the 2005 Opel Astra Diesel Hybrid concept.

[edit] EV1 Fuel Cell

This variant extended all-electric propulsion capabilities with a methanol-powered fuel cell system (developed by Daimler-Benz/Ballard for the Mercedes-Benz NECAR), again installed in the trunk. The system consisted of a fuel processor, an expander/compressor and the fuel cell stack. The highway range was about 300 miles, with a fuel economy of 80 mpg (in a gasoline equivalent). The car accelerated to 0-60 mph (96.6 km/h) in 9 seconds.

[edit] See also

[edit] Notes and References

  1. ^ SaveEV1.org
  2. ^ [1]
  3. ^ [2]
  4. ^ [3]
  5. ^ [4]
  6. ^ [5]
  7. ^ [6]
  8. ^ [7]
  9. ^ Fuel costs can be estimated as follows: This article states the nickel-metal hydride batteries held 26.4 kWh of energy. According to the Wikipedia article on Electricity retailing the average cost of electricity is approximately $.106 per kWh. Therefore it would cost 26.4 x $.106 or $2.80 to fully charge the batteries, neglecting any losses in the charging system. The range of the vehicle was 75-150 miles, so it could travel approximately 100 miles at an electric cost of $2.80. If gasoline costs $2 / gallon and a similar car gets 30 miles / gallon then gasoline fuel costs are $6.67 to travel 100 miles. The electric fuel cost is approximately 41% of the gasoline fuel cost in this example.
  10. ^ [8]
  11. ^ [9]
  12. ^ [10]
  13. ^ [11]
  14. ^ [12]
  15. ^ [13]
  16. ^ "GM, Toyota Keep Hybrid Bets Alive" Wall Street Journal December 12, 2006 D7 "The EV1 was a failure, as were other electric vehicles"
  17. ^ [14]
  18. ^ [15]
  19. ^ [16]
  20. ^ [17]
  21. ^ [18]
  22. ^ [19]
  23. ^ [20]
  24. ^ Motor Trend, June 2006, p. 94
  25. ^ [21]
  26. ^ [22]
  27. ^ [23]

[edit] External links

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