Fernando Álvarez de Toledo, 3rd Duke of Alba

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Don Fernando Álvarez de Toledo y Pimentel, 3rd Duke of Alba (es: Don Fernando Álvarez de Toledo y Pimentel, tercer duque de Alba) (October 29, 1507–December 11, 1582) was a Spanish general and governor of the Spanish Netherlands (1567-1573), nicknamed "the Iron Duke" by Protestants of the Low Countries because of his harsh rule and cruelty. Tales of atrocities committed during his military operations in Flanders became part of Dutch and English folklore, forming a new and central component of the Black Legend.

Alba's grandfather, Fernando of Toledo, educated him in military science and politics; and he was engaged with distinction at the Battle of Pavia in 1525, while still a youth.

Selected for a military command by Charles V, he took part in the siege of Tunis (1535), and successfully defended Perpignan against the dauphin of France. He was present at the Battle of Mühlberg (1547), and the victory gained there over the Prince-Elector Johann Friederich of Saxony was due mainly to his exertions. He took part in the subsequent successful siege of Wittenberg defended by the Electress, Sibylla, following which Alba presided at the court-martial which tried the Prince-Elector and condemned him to death as a rebel against the Emperor, wringing from him the Capitulation of Wittenberg (1547), in which he was compelled to resign the electoral dignity and a great part of his territory to his cousin Maurice.

In 1552 Alba was entrusted with the command of the army intended to invade France, and was engaged for several months in an unsuccessful siege of Metz. In consequence of the success of the French arms in Piedmont, he was made commander-in-chief of all the emperor's forces in Italy, and at the same time invested with unlimited power. Success did not, however, attend his first attempts, and after several unfortunate attacks he was obliged to retire into winter quarters.

After the abdication of Charles V he was continued in the command by Philip II, who, however, restrained him from extreme measures. Alba had subdued the whole Campagna and was at the gates of Rome, when he was compelled by Philip's orders to negotiate a peace.

Not long after this (1559) he was sent at the head of a splendid embassy to Paris to espouse, in the name of Philip, Elizabeth, daughter of Henry, king of France. These negotiations led to the Peace of Cateau-Cambrésis.

Contents 1 Alba in the Netherlands 2 Retirement and disgrace 3 Alba in Portugal 4 References

[edit] Alba in the Netherlands

In 1567, Philip, who was a zealous persecutor of Protestants, sent Alba into the Netherlands at the head of an army of 12,000 men, with unlimited powers for the extirpation of heretics. When he arrived he soon showed how much he merited the confidence which his master reposed in him, and instantly erected a tribunal which soon became known to its victims as the "Blood Council," to try all persons who had been engaged in the late commotions that the rule of Philip had excited. During the six years of his governorship, thousands of people were executed. Dutch accounts refer to 18,000; while in Spanish history only a few hundred are mentioned. About 6,000 casualties can be considered as the most accurate estimate^[1]. He imprisoned Lamoral, Count of Egmont and Philip de Montmorency, Count of Hoorn, the two popular leaders of the dissatisfied Dutch nobles, and had them condemned to death even though they were opposed to the Protestants.

His attempt to raise money by imposing the Spanish alcabala, a tax of 10% on all sales ("tenth penny" tax), aroused the opposition of the Catholic Netherlands themselves. The exiles from the Low Countries, who called themselves Geuzen (French gueux, "beggars"), encouraged by the general resistance to his government, fitted out a fleet of privateers, and after strengthening themselves by successful depredations, seized the town of Den Briel (Brielle). Thus Alba by his cruelty became the unwitting instrument of the future independence of the seven Dutch provinces.

On August 22, Alva, accompanied by a body of select Spanish troops, made his entry into Brussels. He immediately appointed a council to condemn without trial those suspected of heresy and rebellion. On June 1, 1568, Brussels witnessed the simultaneous decapitation of twenty-two noblemen; on 6 June followed the execution of the Counts of Egmond and Hoorne. The "Council of Blood" was the popular designation of Alva's tribunal.

The fleet of the exiles, having met the Spanish fleet, defeated it, and reduced Holland and Mons. The States-General, assembling at Dordrecht, openly declared against Alba's government, and marshalled under the banners of the prince of Orange.

Alba's preparations to oppose the gathering storm were made with his usual vigour, and he succeeded in recovering Mons, Mechelen and Zutphen, under the conduct of his son Don Fadrique. With the exception of Zeeland and Holland, he regained all the provinces; and at last his son stormed Naarden, and massacring its inhabitants, proceeded to invest the city of Haarlem, which, after standing an obstinate siege, was taken and pillaged. Their next attack was upon Alkmaar; but there they were met with such desperate resistance that they were constrained to retire.

[edit] Retirement and disgrace

Alba's feeble state of health and continued disasters induced him to solicit his recall from the government of the Low Countries. In December 1573 Philip accepted his resignation and replaced him with Luis de Zúñiga y Requesens.

On his return he was treated for some time with great distinction by Philip, until a love affair of Don Fadrique dragged father and son into disgrace. Alba was banished from court and confined in the castle of Uzeda.

Alva remained in exile at his castle up to 1580, when the acknowledged power of his iron hand was sought in the war against Portugal.

[edit] Alba in Portugal

Here he had remained two years, when the success of Dom Antonio in assuming the crown of Portugal determined Philip to turn his eyes towards Alba as the person in whose fidelity and abilities he could most confide.

Appointed to the supreme command in Portugal in 1580, Alba soon defeated António in the Battle of Alcântara, drove him from the kingdom, and reduced the whole under the subjection of Philip. Entering Lisbon he seized an immense treasure, and allowed his soldiers to sack the suburbs and vicinity.

Alba, however, did not enjoy the honours and rewards of his last expedition, for he died at Lisbon on December 11, 1582.

Preceded by: Ferdinando Gonzaga	Governors of the Duchy of Milan 1555-1556	Succeeded by: Cardinal Cristoforo Madruzzo
Preceded by: Margaret of Austria	Governors of the Habsburg Netherlands 1567-1573	Succeeded by: Luis de Zúñiga y Requesens
Preceded by: conquest of the kingdom	Spanish Viceroy of Portugal 1580-1582	Succeeded by: Cardinal Albert, Archduke of Austria

[edit] References

• This article incorporates text from the Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition, a publication now in the public domain. The article is available here